Lower School Connectedness Research Articles

Relationship between smoking and mental health in educational settings with high smoking rates: a cohort study among Danish youth

Background: Smoking and poor mental health in youth represent important public health priorities. This study aimed to (i) compare tobacco-related behaviors and mental health in two educational settings with high smoking rates: vocational education and training (VET) schools and preparatory basic education (PBE) schools, and (ii) examine associations between smoking at school start and mental health 5 months later. Methods: Data were obtained from baseline ( N = 1843) and follow-up ( N = 1039) assessments conducted as part of a school-based trial in two rounds (baseline in August 2018 and August 2019). Students’ characteristics were presented by adjusted prevalences. Logistic regression analyses assessed associations between smoking and measures of mental health: school-related well-being, overall loneliness, and stress. Results: More PBE students than VET students reported daily smoking (40% vs. 27%), nicotine dependence, perceived benefits of smoking (e.g., stress reduction: 41% vs. 33%), low smoking-related self-efficacy (e.g., ability to resist smoking if offered by a friend: 20% vs. 32%), school-related loneliness, and low school connectedness (25% vs. 11%). Daily smokers at VET and PBE schools had lower odds of school-related loneliness (AOR = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.35–0.74) and higher odds of stress (AOR = 2.75, 95% CI: 2.00–3.80). Smoking was associated with better classmate relations in VET schools but not in PBE schools. Conclusions: Our study suggested that students in PBE schools constitute a more vulnerable group in terms of smoking and mental health compared with students in VET schools. Smoking seemed to prevent loneliness in school but was associated with heightened stress levels.

Gender equitable attitudes as a significant mediator of bystander intentions among sexual minority adolescents.

Bystander intervention is a promising approach for prevention of sexual violence. Assessing factors that may promote or hinder bystander intervention among sexual minority adolescents (i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer) is essential, given high rates of violence among sexual minority youth. Prior research examining barriers and facilitators of bystander intervention intentions does not consider how factors may vary by sexual identity. As such, the current study aimed to (1) examine how barriers and facilitators of bystander intentions, bystander intentions, and bystander behavior vary between heterosexual and sexual minority high school adolescents and (2) explore mediators of the association between sexual identity and bystander intervention intentions. We proposed that students' level of school connectedness, gender equitable attitudes, and anticipated positive consequences of bystander intervention (e.g., having a moral desire to help) would promote bystander intervention intentions, whereas binge drinking, and students anticipated negative consequences of bystander intervention (e.g., fear for one's own safety) would tend to weaken bystander intervention intentions. Participants included 2,645 10th grade students (Mage = 15.37, SD = 0.61) recruited from high schools in the Northeast United States. Sexual minority youth reported higher bystander intentions, bystander behavior, anticipated positive consequences of bystander intervention, gender equitable attitudes, and binge drinking relative to heterosexual youth. Sexual minority youth had lower school connectedness than heterosexual youth. Anticipated negative consequences of bystander intervention did not vary by group. Parallel linear regression analyses found that only anticipated positive consequences of bystander intervention and gender equitable attitudes fully mediated the relationships between sexual identity and bystander intentions. Bystander intervention programs may benefit from attending to specific facilitators of bystander intervention among sexual minority youth, such as gender equitable attitudes.

Cybervictimization and non-suicidal self-injury among Chinese adolescents: The effect of depression and school connectedness.

Cybervictimization has been shown in many studies to be a risk factor for adolescent non-suicidal self-injurious behavior (NSSI). In this study we tested the roles of depression and school connectedness in this association. The Integrative Model of NSSI, Emotion Regulation and Interpersonal Relationship Model of NSSI, and Integrative Model of Social Media and Suicide provided the conceptual framework for the study. A sample of 1106 adolescents (M age = 13.17; SD = 0.69; 51.78% girls) completed anonymous questionnaires in their classrooms. The results of structural equation modeling showed that the positive association between cybervictimization and adolescent NSSI was mediated by depression. Moreover, this indirect link was stronger for adolescents with low vs. high school connectedness. The results have implications for intervention programs aimed at reducing NSSI among adolescents.

Childhood maltreatment and adolescents’ peer victimization: The effect of security, school connectedness and gender

BackgroundBased on the cycle of violence theory, exposure to childhood maltreatment is more likely to be revictimized in adolescence. However, the internal mechanism between childhood maltreatment and adolescents’ peer victimization is still not precise. ObjectivesCurrent study aimed to explore the internal mechanism between childhood maltreatment and adolescents’ peer victimization through the mediating role of security and moderating roles of gender and school connectedness.Participants.A sample of 2758 adolescents (M = 15.09, SD = 1.61), including1353 junior school students and 1405 high school students, participated in the study. MethodsAll participants completed self-report questionnaires regarding childhood maltreatment, sense of security, peer victimization, and school connectedness. Results(1) Childhood maltreatment positively predicted adolescents’ peer victimization. (2) Security played a mediating role between childhood maltreatment and peer victimization. (3) Gender played a moderating role between security and peer victimization. Contrary to girls, security had a more substantial impact on boys’ peer victimization. (4) School connectedness was a crucial protective factor that could inhibit childhood maltreatment’s adverse effects on security and peer victimization. And adolescents with high school connectedness were at lower risk of feeling insecurity and exposure to peer victimization in adolescence than those with low school connectedness. ConclusionsThe findings highlight security and school connectedness are crucial factors in protecting adolescents from peer victimization. Besides, much attention should focus on boys, as boys with insecurity are more likely to be victimized by peers.

School Connectedness and E-cigarette Susceptibility/ Ever Use in Texas 6th-Grade Students.

Objectives: We examined the association between school connectedness (SC) and e-cigarette susceptibility/ ever use in a diverse sample of Texas 6th graders, with a secondary aim to explore the association stratified by gender and classroom setting (in-person vs remote). Methods: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted of CATCH My Breath baseline data, representing 985 6th -graders from 21 public schools. SC was based on National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health measures; e-cigarette susceptibility/ever use was based on the FDA's definition of "at-risk" for long-term use. We conducted multi-level logistic regression analyses.Results: Over half the sample was Hispanic (57.6%), with 36.2% reporting susceptibility/ever use. Lower SC was associated with increased odds of e-cigarette susceptibility/ever use (low SC: aOR: 5.17, 95% CI: 3.54, 7.55; medium SC: aOR: 2.15, 95% CI: 1.44, 2.91; high SC= referent). The association held across gender groups, with low SC girls reporting the highest odds of susceptibility/ever use (aOR: 7.83, 95% CI: 4.51, 13.61). Low SC in- person and remote students were 6 and 4 times, respectively, more likely to report susceptibility/ever use as high SC students (p<.05). Conclusion: SC protected against e-cigarette susceptibility/ever use in this sample.

Unique and interactive effects of parental neglect, school connectedness, and trait self-control on mobile short-form video dependence among Chinese left-behind adolescents

BackgroundMobile short-form video is becoming increasingly popular among Chinese adolescents. Mobile short-form video dependence has become a pressing issue in Chinese adolescents, especially in left-behind adolescents. Previous studies, however, have focused on general mobile phone dependence and neglected specific types of mobile phone dependence. Few studies have explored the environmental and individual predictors of mobile short-form video dependence. ObjectiveBased on theoretical and empirical evidence, the present study examined the unique and interactive effects of parental neglect, school connectedness, and trait self-control on mobile short-form video dependence among Chinese left-behind adolescents. MethodsA total of 618 left-behind adolescents between 11 and 15 years of age completed the anonymous self-report survey. The PROCESS macro for SPSS was applied for data analysis. ResultsParental neglect was positively associated with mobile short-form video dependence, whereas school connectedness and trait self-control were negatively associated with mobile short-form video dependence in left-behind adolescents. Examination of the two-way interactions indicated that school connectedness and trait self-control could buffer the association between parental neglect and left-behind adolescents' mobile short-form video dependence. However, self-control could not moderate the association between school connectedness and mobile short-form video dependence. In addition, the three-way interaction of parental neglect, school connectedness, and trait self-control showed a significant effect on mobile short-form video dependence. The moderating role of school connectedness was stronger for left-behind adolescents with low trait self-control than for those with high trait self-control, and the moderating role of trait self-control was stronger for left-behind adolescents with low school connectedness than for those with high school connectedness. ConclusionsThe findings contribute significantly to revealing the complex mechanisms of mobile short-form video dependence and providing comprehensive and specific practical suggestions for the prevention and intervention of mobile short-form video dependence among left-behind adolescents.

Impact of School and Peer Connectedness on Adolescent Mental Health and Well-Being Outcomes during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Panel Survey.

School closures and social distancing measures during the pandemic have disrupted young people’s daily routines and social relationships. We explored patterns of change in adolescent mental health and tested the relationship between pre-pandemic levels of school and peer connectedness and changes in mental health and well-being between the first lockdown and the return to school. This is a secondary analysis of a longitudinal 3-wave panel survey. The study sample included 603 students (aged 13–14) in 17 secondary schools across south-west England. Students completed a survey pre-pandemic (October 2019), during lockdown (May 2020) and shortly after returning to school (October 2020). Multilevel models, with random effects, were conducted for anxiety, depression and well-being outcomes with school and peer connectedness as predictor variables. Symptoms of anxiety decreased from pre-pandemic to during the first UK lockdown and increased on the return to school; anxious symptoms decreased the most for students reporting feeling least connected to school pre-pandemic. Students reporting low levels of school and peer connectedness pre-pandemic experienced poorer mental health and well-being at all time points. Low school connectedness pre-pandemic was associated with a greater increase in anxious and depressive symptoms between lockdown and the return to school when compared to students with medium levels of school connectedness. No associations were found with high school connectedness or with low/high peer connectedness. For adolescents with poor school connectedness, the enforced time away from school that the pandemic caused led to reduced anxiety. Going forwards, we need to consider ways in which to promote connection with school as a way of supporting mental health and well-being.

Does It Matter If Students (Dis)like School? Associations Between School Liking, Teacher and School Connectedness, and Exclusionary Discipline.

School liking is an important factor in student engagement, well-being, and academic achievement, but it is also potentially influenced by factors external to the individual, such as school culture, teacher support, and approaches to discipline. The present study employed a survey methodology to investigate the associations between school liking and disliking, teacher and school connectedness, and experiences of exclusionary discipline from the perspective of students themselves. Participants included 1,002 students (Grades 7–10) from three secondary schools serving disadvantaged communities. Results indicated clear differences between students who like and dislike school in terms of their preferred school activities and school disciplinary history, with students who disliked school experiencing overall lower school connectedness. Moreover, students who disliked school experienced less positive relationships with their teachers, and this was even more pronounced for students who had been previously suspended. The findings reveal key differences between students who do and do not like school, differences that may be masked by typical research approaches. This research indicates the need for more nuanced, student-informed approaches to inclusive school reform.

The Relationships between Childhood Bullying, School Connectedness, and Adolescent Adiposity, the Fragile Families Child and Wellbeing Study.

School environments are important to consider for children's health. This study aims to determine if childhood peer bullying and school connectedness are associated with adolescent adiposity. A total of 3377 children from the age 9 child interview of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study had self-reported bullying and school connectedness data at age 9, height and weight measured at ages 9 and 15, and waist circumference was measured during an age 15 home visit. Linear regression models estimated the association between bullying and school connectedness and (1) change in BMI between age 9 and 15, and (2) waist circumference at age 15. Models were stratified by sex. Girls had larger increases in body mass index (BMI) when experiencing low school connectedness, and students that experienced both bullying and low school connectedness had larger increases in BMI. Girls had larger waist circumferences for increased levels of bullying, low connectedness, and experiencing both. School environments may play a role in the development of increased adiposity and there may be gender differences in the types of factors that are important to consider, particularly for central adiposity. Positive and engaging school environments can help support students' development and healthy behaviors.

The effect of school and peer connectedness on adolescent mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal panel survey

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic, school closures, and social distancing measures have disrupted young people's daily routines, learning, and social relationships. We examine the changes in adolescent mental health over time and explore the relationship between how connected students felt to their school and peers before the pandemic and how this affected their mental health during school closures and on return to school. MethodsThis is a longitudinal three-wave panel survey with students aged 13–15 years in 17 secondary schools across the South West of England. Students completed a self-report survey before the pandemic (October, 2019), during the first UK lockdown (May, 2020), and shortly after returning to school (October, 2020). Matched data across all three waves were available for 603 students. Anxiety and depression were measured using the Hospital Anxiety & Depression Scale (HADS). School connectedness was measured using six items adapted from the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) scale. Peer connectedness was measured using a seven-item subscale as published by Jose, Ryan, and Pryor (2012). The study was approved by the University of Bristol Medical School ethics committee (reference 84883). FindingsThere was an overall decrease in anxiety score from before the pandemic (median 7, IQR 4–11) to during the first UK lockdown (median 6, IQR 3–10). Wilcoxon signed-rank tests indicated that this difference was statistically significant (z=–7·061, p<0·0001). Anxiety levels then increased on return to school (median 8, IQR 4–11), which was also statistically significant (z=6·983, p<0·0001). No changes were observed for levels of depression over the three timepoints. Low school connectedness at baseline predicted a significant increase in anxiety when students returned to school (β 1·33, 95% CI 0·55–2·11; p=0·001). No significant association was found between low peer connectedness before the pandemic and anxiety levels on return to school (β 0·53, 95% CI –0·24 to 1·30; p=0·175). InterpretationOur findings suggest that most students adapted well to school closures, and in fact experienced less anxiety than before the pandemic. Students who reported feeling poorly connected to school before the pandemic are likely to experience higher levels of anxiety on return to school. This study highlights the need for routine mental health and wellbeing monitoring in schools to identify key areas of support and to inform school-based public health interventions. FundingThe National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) School for Public Health Research (SPHR).

Perceived ethnic discrimination and school connectedness among adolescents in Finland: Role of family background and sex

The study investigates the effect of immigrant background and sex on perceived ethnic discrimination and school connectedness in Finland. An online questionnaire was completed by 1,827 adolescents (12-19 years of age) from both Finnish and Swedish speaking schools in Western Finland. Adolescents’ family background was categorized as either native, multicultural, or immigrant. Perceived ethnic discrimination was examined according to its source, whether it acted out by peers, by teachers, or by someone else. Adolescents with an immigrant background were found to have higher scores of perceived ethnic discrimination regardless of its source, and lower school connectedness than other groups. Boys had higher scores of perceived ethnic discrimination by peers and by someone else, and they also reported higher school connectedness than girls. There was also a significant interaction effect between immigrant background and student sex, so that girls with a multicultural background experienced higher levels of discrimination by peers and discrimination by someone else than boys with a multicultural background.

Longitudinal Effects of Peer, School, and Parenting Contexts on Substance Use Initiation in Middle Adolescence

ABSTRACT Purpose: Preventing substance use initiation (SUI) can reduce negative consequences associated with adult substance use disorder. The role of involvement with deviant peers, school connectedness, and parenting quality on SUI was investigated among a community sample (N = 387). Method: PROCESS tested whether three parenting quality factors (Parental Knowledge and Affective Relationships, Parental Control, and Parental Communication and Involvement) served as moderators of two different mediation pathways (involvement with deviant peers and school connectedness) on three SUI outcomes (alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana). Results: Involvement with deviant peers mediated the relation between school connectedness and substance use. Low school connectedness predicted high deviant peer affiliation, which, in turn, predicted high SUI. School connectedness did not mediate involvement with deviant peers and substance use. Parenting quality factors were not significant moderators. Conclusion: Supporting adolescents who lack strong school connections may help prevent involvement with deviant peers, which, in turn, may prevent SUI.

Academic Well-Being and Structural Characteristics of Peer Networks in School.

Peer networks at school and students’ position in these networks can influence their academic well-being. We study here individual students’ network position (isolation, popularity, social activity) and peer network structures at the school level (centralization, density, clustering, school connectedness) and their relations to students’ academic well-being (school burnout, SB; schoolwork engagement, SE). Classroom surveys for 14–16-year-olds (N = 11,015) were conducted in six European cities (SILNE survey). Students were asked to nominate up to five schoolmates with whom they preferred to do schoolwork. SB and SE correlated negatively (−0.32; p < 0.0001). Students had on average 3.4 incoming (popularity; range 0–5) and 3.4 outgoing (social activity; 0–5) social ties. Percentage of isolated students was 1.4. Students’ network position was associated weakly with academic well-being—popular students had less SB and higher SE, and socially active students had higher SE. School-level peer networks showed high clustering and school connectedness, but low density and low centralization. Clustering was associated with higher SB. Low centralization and high school connectedness protected from SB. Dense networks supported SE as did high average school connectedness. Correlations between these network indicators and academic well-being were, however, low. Our study showed that both students’ network position and network characteristics at the school level can influence adolescents’ academic well-being.

School connectedness and child anxiety

AbstractPoor school connectedness (SC), defined as students’ feelings of belonging, safety, and fairness at school, is a risk factor for negative psychosocial outcomes. Few studies have examined the specific relationship between SC and anxiety. This study examined the relation between SC and anxiety within a group of 114 clinically anxious youth (mean age = 10.82;SD= 2.93; 48.2% female; 70.2% White, non-Hispanic); age differences were also examined. Results indicated that SC was significantly negatively associated with age but unrelated to gender, race/ethnicity, socio-economic status, parent education, or presence of a comorbid disorder. Findings generally revealed that low SC was associated with greater total and domain specific anxiety. SC may play a unique role in the maintenance of global and domain specific anxiety symptoms.

A Multi-Level Analysis on School Connectedness, Family Support, and Adolescent Depression: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, 1995–1996

Objective: The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the effect of family support, school connectedness, and school environments on depressive symptoms among adolescents across racial/ethnic groups on both the student-level and school-level. Method: This study uses a sample of 4228 students (2122 girls and 2016 boys) from the public use data of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Students were measured at two time points (one year apart) on school connectedness, family support, socio-demographic factors, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies’ Depression Scale. Hierarchical Linear Modeling was used to examine potential predictors on adolescent depressive symptoms. This is, to the best of the author’s knowledge, the first study to examine the interplay of school connectedness, school racial composition, and adolescent depression. Results: School connectedness partially mediates the effects of family support on depressive symptoms, but both remain strong predictors of depressive symptoms. African American adolescents are the only racial/ethnic group that has constantly higher CES-D scores than the non-Hispanic white adolescents. School-level connectedness is positively related to students’ depressive symptoms. The racial composition of a school has different effects on students’ depressive symptoms on student’s race. Conclusions: Low perceived family support, low school connectedness, being female, and being African American are consistently associated with greater depressive symptoms one year later. The overall level of school connectedness of a school is found to be related with greater individual student’s depressive symptoms, while the effects of school proportion of minority students on students’ depressive symptoms differ significantly across the race/ethnicity of students. Future study is needed to explore the association between racial/ethnic segregation and adolescent depression while considering students’ racial/ethnic status.

School transition and mental health among adolescents: A comparative study of school systems in Denmark and Australia

This study explores the influence of transition from primary to secondary schools in Australia versus no transition in Denmark by comparing age trends in students’ school connectedness, emotional symptoms and conduct problems. Survey data from 5067 students in Australia and Denmark were used to compare 11–12 (prior to transition in Australia), 13–14 (during transition) and 15 year-olds (post-transition) in each country. In Australia, no statistically significant age group differences in emotional symptoms, conduct problems or school connectedness were observed. In Denmark, low school connectedness, emotional symptoms and conduct problems increased with age. A continuation of efforts to support students through transition and beyond in Australia, and a stronger focus on mental health and school connectedness in Denmark is recommended.

Stability and change in callous-unemotional traits: Longitudinal associations with potential individual and contextual risk and protective factors.

This longitudinal study examines developmental heterogeneity in callous-unemotional (CU) traits in a large sample of school-age children in Cyprus. Latent Class Growth Analysis revealed 4 trajectory groups of CU traits across 3 time points: stable high, increasing, decreasing, and low. Findings suggested that children in the stable high CU trajectory were more likely to (a) exhibit high and stable levels of conduct problems, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, impulsivity and narcissism, (b) experience low parental involvement and high parental distress, (c) report low peer support and school connectedness, and (d) score lower on academic performance, executive functioning, social competence, and self-regulation compared to children with low, decreasing, and increasing CU traits. These findings were verified by both parent and child reports. Repeated analysis of variance suggested that increases and decreases in CU traits were associated with similar changes in conduct problems, narcissism, impulsivity, and maternal involvement. Further, children in the decreasing trajectory group were not differentiated from children in the low risk group on measures of executive functioning, academic performance, school connectedness, and peer social support at the last wave of measurement. These findings provide evidence for the importance of taking longitudinal change into account for understanding developmental heterogeneity in CU traits and the association of these traits with possible protective (e.g., stable high maternal involvement) and risk (e.g., decreases in maternal involvement and increases in conduct problems, impulsivity and narcissism) variables. (PsycINFO Database Record

Primary school students' mental health in Uganda and its association with school violence, connectedness, and school characteristics: a cross-sectional study.

BackgroundFew studies have explored risk factors for poor mental health in Ugandan primary schools. This study investigated whether individual- and contextual-level school-related factors including violence from school staff and other students, connectedness to school and peers, as well as school size and urban/rural location, were associated with mental health difficulties in Ugandan children. We also examined whether associations between violence exposure at school and mental health were mediated by connectedness as well as whether associations were different for boys and girls.MethodsThe analytic sample consisted of 3,565 students from 42 primary schools participating in the Good Schools Study. Data were collected through individual interviews conducted in June and July 2012. Mental health was measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Multilevel logistic regression was applied to investigate factors associated with mental health difficulties.ResultsExperiences of violence from school staff and other students in the past week were strongly associated with mental health difficulties (OR = 1.58, 95 % CI 1.31 to 1.90 and 1.81, 1.47 to 2.23, respectively). Children with a low school connectedness had 1.43 times (1.11 to 1.83) the odds of mental health difficulties compared to those with a high school connectedness. The OR comparing children never feeling close to other students at their school with those always feeling close was 1.86 (1.18 to 2.93). The effect of violence on mental health was not mediated through the connectedness variables. School size was not related to mental health difficulties, but attending an urban school increased the odds of mental health difficulties after accounting for other factors. We did not find evidence that the effect of one or more of the exposures on the outcome differed between boys and girls.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that violence in school and low connectedness to school and peers are independently associated with mental health difficulties and interventions should address both concurrently. Extra support may be needed for students in urban schools.Trial registrationClinicaltrials.gov NCT01678846. Registered 24 August 2012.

The role of race and teachers’ cultural awareness in predicting low-income, Black and Hispanic students’ perceptions of educational attainment

Demographic shifts in the United States have resulted in similar demographic shifts between K-12 teachers and their students, resulting in important implications for the educational outcomes of traditionally marginalized students and educators’ cultural awareness required in teaching diverse classrooms. Using data from the Three-City Teacher Study, this study examined students’ (N = 207; 55 % female; 52 % non-Hispanic Black, 48 % non-White Hispanic; mean age = 16.70 years, SD = 1.67) and teachers’ (N = 202; 71.5 % female; 64.3 % white; mean years of experience = 13.80 years, SD = 10.83) agreement on the potential educational attainment of the student. Specifically, we explored the probability that teachers had lower, matched, or higher perceptions of educational attainment compared to their low-income Black and Hispanic students’ perceptions of attainment while accounting for teachers’ and students’ reports of school connectedness, teachers’ cultural awareness, and moderating effects of students’ race. Results from multinomial logistic regressions found that teachers were more likely to have lower perceptions of educational attainment for Hispanic students compared to Black students. Teachers were also more likely to have lower perceptions when they perceived students to have low school connectedness. For Black students, teachers’ cultural awareness attenuated this association; that is, teachers were more likely to have higher perceptions of educational attainment for Black students when they reported higher cultural awareness. The reverse was true for Hispanic students. These results enhance our understanding of how teacher and student perceptions shape expectations of educational attainment with implications for teacher education and professional development domestically and internationally.

Brief report: Explaining differences in depressive symptoms between African American and European American adolescents

African American adolescents report more depressive symptoms than their European American peers, but the reasons for these differences are poorly understood. This study examines whether risk factors in individual, family, school, and community domains explain these differences. African American and European American adolescents participating in the Birmingham Youth Violence Study (N = 594; mean age 13.2 years) reported on their depressive symptoms, pubertal development, aggressive and delinquent behavior, connectedness to school, witnessing violence, and poor parenting. Primary caregivers provided information on family income and their education level, marital status, and depression, and the adolescents' academic performance. African American adolescents reported more depressive symptoms than European American participants. Family socioeconomic factors reduced this difference by 29%; all risk factors reduced it by 88%. Adolescents' exposure to violence, antisocial behavior, and low school connectedness, as well as lower parental education and parenting quality, emerged as significant mediators of the group differences in depressive symptoms.