Low-permeability Rock Matrix Research Articles

Implicit hydromechanical representation of fractures using a continuum approach

Fractures control fluid flow, solute transport, and mechanical deformation in crystalline media. They can be modeled numerically either explicitly or implicitly via an equivalent continuum. The implicit framework implies lower computational cost and complexity. However, upscaling heterogeneous fracture properties for its implicit representation as an equivalent fracture layer remains an open question. In this study, we propose an approach, the Equivalent Fracture Layer (EFL), for the implicit representation of fractures surrounded by low-permeability rock matrix to accurately simulate hydromechanical coupled processes. The approach assimilates fractures as equivalent continua with a manageable scale (≫1 μm) that facilitates spatial discretization, even for large-scale models including multiple fractures. Simulation results demonstrate that a relatively thick equivalent continuum layer (in the order of cm) can represent a fracture (with aperture in the order of μm) and accurately reproduce the hydromechanical behavior (i.e., fluid flow and deformation/stress behavior). There is an upper bound restriction due to the Young's modulus because the equivalent fracture layer should have a lower Young's modulus than that of the surrounding matrix. To validate the approach, we model a hydraulic stimulation carried out at the Bedretto Underground Laboratory for Geosciences and Geoenergies in Switzerland by comparing numerical results against measured data. The method further improves the ability and simplicity of continuum methods to represent fractures in fractured media.

Vertical and lateral distribution of helium in porewater of the Mesozoic sedimentary sequence of northern Switzerland – A comparative investigation across multiple boreholes

Helium concentrations and 3He/4He ratios were measured on porewater extracted from the low-permeability rock matrix and groundwater in bounding aquifers in Northern Switzerland. The samples were collected from six deep boreholes, which were drilled across the Tertiary Molasse and the underlying Mesozoic sediments at three different study areas within the context of Nagra's deep drilling programme for the underground disposal of radioactive waste. Porewater helium data obtained from each borehole at high spatial resolution describe continuous profiles over multiple aquifer-aquitard intervals across the Jurassic to Triassic sediment sequence. Given the lateral distribution of the investigated areas (∼20 km apart) and having two boreholes in each area (a few km apart), this allows to investigate both vertical and lateral changes of He in the porewater and groundwater system at high resolution and over large scales.In the about 300–400 m thick Dogger–Lias aquitard sequence including the Opalinus Clay, porewater He concentrations are nearly identical and have very similar 3He/4He signatures in all boreholes. This suggests a common history in the development of these systems despite the boreholes being located in three study areas with different hydrogeological setting and tectonic history since their last burial and diagenesis. Proximal to the groundwaters, He profiles show that the porewater system is controlled by diffusive redistribution of in-situ produced He from high concentrations in the aquitards towards lower concentrations in the bounding groundwaters. At some locations, the influence of evaporitic strata with very low diffusivity acting as transport barriers becomes obvious. Close to the aquitards, differences between the profile shapes of helium and other conservative tracers such as δ2H in the different boreholes and areas indicate different boundary conditions for the different tracers over the more recent geological past, as well as, for some boreholes, the potential contribution of helium from the groundwater to the porewater in the nearby low-permeability rock matrix.In one study area, cross-formation transport of helium could be identified close to a deep reaching tectonic structure related to the Hegau-Lake Constance fault system. This basement derived gas is subsequently laterally distributed via groundwater in the different aquifers and influences the porewater of the adjacent aquitard formations, as evidenced by the helium concentrations and 3He/4He ratios in the groundwater and porewater in the two boreholes of this siting area.

Effects of fracture network distribution on excavation-induced coupled responses of pore pressure perturbation and rock mass deformation

We perform a numerical study of the spatio-temporal evolution of rock damages and fracture displacements around underground excavation in fractured rocks. We model fracture networks based on a power law model and explore different values of the length exponent and fracture intensity. An elasto-brittle constitutive relation is employed to characterise the deformation/failure of intact rocks, while a non-linear stress–displacement relation is used to mimic the normal/shear displacement of pre-existing fractures. Fluid flow through fractured porous media is simulated based on Darcy’s law. Both direct coupling (via poroelasticity) and indirect coupling (via changes of rock mass properties) are considered, with excavation-induced stress alteration, pore pressure variation, damage evolution, and fracture deformation realistically captured. It is observed that, fracture systems dominated by large fractures in general accommodate significant sliding along pre-existing fractures but minor damage in intact rocks, while fracture systems governed by small fractures can have profound damage and slippage simultaneously. Excavation-induced stress variation near the tunnel can instantly cause pore pressure fluctuations in low-permeability rock matrix, promoting fracture shear and rock damage. In addition, we investigate the microseismicity generated during and after the excavation as well as analyse the mechanisms of excavation and drainage-induced disturbances. Our results have important implications for underground excavation activities involved in many geoengineering applications.

Reactive Transport Model of Gypsum Karstification in Physically and Chemically Heterogeneous Fractured Media

Gypsum dissolution leads to the development of karstic features within much shorter timescales than in other sedimentary rocks, potentially leading to rapid deterioration of groundwater quality and increasing the risk of catastrophes caused by subsidence. Here, we present a 2-D reactive transport model to evaluate gypsum karstification in physically and chemically heterogeneous systems. The model considers a low-permeability rock matrix composed mainly of gypsum and a discontinuity (fracture), which acts as a preferential water pathway. Several scenarios are analyzed and simulated to investigate the relevance for gypsum karstification of: (1) the dynamic update of flow and transport parameters due to porosity changes; (2) the spatial distribution of minerals in the rock matrix; (3) the time evolution of water inflows through the boundaries of the model; (4) the functions relating permeability, k, to porosity, ϕ. The average porosity of the matrix after 1000 years of simulation increases from 0.045 to 0.29 when flow, transport, and chemical parameters and the water inflows through the boundary are dynamically updated according to the porosity changes. On the contrary, the porosity of the matrix hardly changes when the porosity feedback effect is not considered, while its average increases to 0.13 if the water inflow occurs through the discontinuity. Moreover, the dissolution of small amounts of highly soluble sulfate minerals plays a major role in the development of additional fractures. The increase in hydraulic conductivity is largest for the power law with an exponent of n = 5, as well as the Kozeny-Carman and the modified Fair-atch k-ϕ relationships. The gypsum dissolution front propagates into the matrix faster when the power law with n = 2 and 3 and the Verma–Pruess k-ϕ relationships are used.

Thicknesses of Chemically Altered Zones in Shale Matrices Resulting from Interactions with Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid

Hydraulic fracturing of unconventional shale reservoirs increases the fracture network surface area to access hydrocarbons from the low permeability rock matrix. Porosity and permeability of the matrix, through which hydrocarbons migrate to fractures, are important for determining production efficiency and can be altered by chemical interactions between shale and hydraulic fracturing fluids (HFFs). Here, we present results from an experimental study that characterizes the thickness of the alteration zone in the shale matrix after shale–HFF interactions. Experiments were conducted with whole cores submerged in HFF both with and without added barium and sulfate to promote barite scale formation. After 3 weeks of reaction at 77 bar and 80 °C, the cores were characterized using X-ray microtomography, synchrotron X-ray fluorescence microprobe imaging, and synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Our results show that the thickness of the altered zone depends on shale mineralogical composition and varies for ...

Metolachlor dense non-aqueous phase liquid source conditions and plume attenuation in a dolostone water supply aquifer

Abstract This paper reports a long-term field investigation of a fractured dolostone aquifer that was penetrated by a dense non-aqueous phase liquid. High-resolution source zone characterization shows the evolution of deep penetration to the back-diffusion conditions seen at the present day. Metolachlor, a common herbicide, was released into the overburden overlying a fractured dolostone aquifer within a short time window (1978–81). In 2000, the plume front arrived at a municipal supply well located 930 m down-gradient, increasing to a maximum concentration of 2 μg l −1 . Groundwater monitoring with high-resolution, depth-discrete multi-level sampling systems since 1992 shows a clearly delineated bedrock plume. Numerous rock core samples show metolachlor in the low-permeability rock matrix at the bottom of the aquifer. The mass distribution and bedrock hydraulic head pattern strongly suggest that metolachlor entered the bedrock as a free-phase dense non-aqueous phase liquid penetrating to the aquifer bottom, preferentially accumulating in some horizontal fractures, dissolving quickly as a result of the rapid groundwater flow and then diffusing into the rock matrix, where back-diffusion sustains a dilute, persistent and stable plume. Strong plume retardation by matrix diffusion and sorption has greatly mitigated the impact on water quality in the down-gradient supply well, allowing for its continued use, while back-diffusion and degradation maintain a persistent, dilute plume managed by appropriate monitoring.

DFN-M field characterization of sandstone for a process-based site conceptual model and numerical simulations of TCE transport with degradation

Plumes of trichloroethene (TCE) with degradation products occur at a large industrial site in California where TCE as a dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) entered the fractured sandstone bedrock at many locations beginning in the late 1940s. Groundwater flows rapidly in closely spaced fractures but plume fronts are strongly retarded relative to groundwater flow velocities owing largely to matrix diffusion in early decades and degradation processes in later decades and going forward. Multiple data types show field evidence for both biotic and abiotic dechlorination of TCE and its degradation products, resulting in non-chlorinated compounds. Analyses were conducted on groundwater samples from hundreds of monitoring wells and on thousands of rock samples from continuous core over depths ranging from 6 to 426 metres below ground surface. Nearly all of the present-day mass of TCE and degradation products resides in the water-saturated, low-permeability rock matrix blocks. Although groundwater and DNAPL flow primarily occur in the fractures, DNAPL dissolution followed by diffusion and sorption readily transfers contaminant mass into the rock matrix. The presence of non-chlorinated degradation products (ethene, ethane, acetylene) and compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA) of TCE and cis-1,2-dichloroethene (cDCE) indicate at least some complete dechlorination by both biotic and abiotic pathways, consistent with the observed mineralogy and hydrogeochemistry and with published results from crushed rock microcosms. The rock matrix contains abundant iron-bearing minerals and solid-phase organic carbon with large surface areas and long contact times, suggesting degradation processes are occurring in the rock matrix. Multiple, high-resolution datasets provide strong evidence for spatially heterogeneous distributions of TCE and degradation products with varying degrees of degradation observed only when using new methods that achieve better detection of dissolved gases (i.e., Snap Sampler™) and contaminant mass stored in the low permeability rock matrix (i.e., CORE-DFN™). Simulations using a discrete fracture-matrix (DFN-M) numerical model capable of rigorously simulating flow and transport in both the fractures and matrix, including interactions, show that even slow, first-order degradation rates (i.e., 5- to 20-year half-lives) informed by site-derived parameters can contribute strongly to natural attenuation, resulting in TCE plumes that become stationary in space and might even retreat after 50 to 100 years, if the DNAPL sources become depleted due to the combination of diffusion and degradation processes.

Contribution of osmotic transport on oil recovery from rock matrix in unconventional reservoirs

The fluid transport mechanisms in fracture and rock matrix play a critical role in economic viability of hydrocarbon recovery from unconventional reservoirs. Several transport mechanisms, including advection, diffusion, and convection, have varying degrees of contribution to hydrocarbon recovery depending on the transport properties of the formation. The contribution of the concentration gradient driven diffusion, or osmotic transport on hydrocarbon recovery has been numerically investigated in this study. The main objective of this study is to determine when the osmotic transport plays an important role on the mass exchange between the fractures and the rock matrix.In this study, a model for the mass transport between the rock matrix and the fractures has been formulated and validated with the experimental data. The numerical results showed that osmosis is an important force imbibing water into low permeability rock matrix and enhancing the effectiveness of low salinity waterflooding on oil recovery. The imbibition of water into oil-wetted shale matrix is mainly driven by the osmotic transport and wettability alteration. The contribution of the osmotic transport on oil recovery continues a long period of time, typically in a few years. This contribution increases if the membrane efficiency is high and the matrix block size is small. However, shale membrane efficiency is typically less than 10% considerably reducing the oil recovery factor by osmosis to less than 5%. Higher membrane efficiency and lower diffusion coefficient of dissolved ions increase the contribution of osmosis on the oil recovery from shale matrix.

Impact of fracture network geometry on free convective flow patterns

The effect of fracture network geometry on free convection in fractured rock is studied using numerical simulations. We examine the structural properties of fracture networks that control the onset and strength of free convection and the patterns of density-dependent flow. Applicability of the equivalent porous medium approach (EPM) is also tested, and recommendations are given, for which situations the EPM approach is valid. To date, the structural properties of fracture networks that determine free convective flow are examined only in few, predominantly simplified regular fracture networks. We consider fracture networks containing continuous, discontinuous, orthogonal and/or inclined discrete fractures embedded in a low-permeability rock matrix. The results indicate that bulk permeability is not adequate to infer the occurrence and magnitude of free convection in fractured rock. Fracture networks can inhibit or promote convection depending on the fracture network geometry. Continuous fracture circuits are the crucial geometrical feature of fracture networks, because large continuous fracture circuits with a large vertical extent promote convection. The likelihood of continuous fracture circuits and thus of free convection increases with increasing fracture density and fracture length, but individual fracture locations may result in great deviances in strength of convection between statistically equivalent fracture networks such that prediction remains subject to large uncertainty.

What can we learn from high-resolution numerical simulations of single- and multi-phase fluid flow in fractured outcrop analogues?

Abstract Naturally fractured reservoirs (NFR), such as the large carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East, contain a major part of the world's remaining conventional oil reserves, but recovering these is especially challenging as the fractures only constitute fluid conduits while the oil is trapped in a low-permeability rock matrix. Recovery factors are therefore difficult to estimate, permeability anisotropy is high, size and shape of drainage areas are difficult to constrain, early water breakthrough is likely to be associated with a high and irreversible water cut, and secondary recovery behaviour is unusual. Outcrop-analogue model-based discrete fracture and matrix (DFM) simulations have emerged recently, helping us to disentangle and rationalize this erratic production behaviour. They allow us to understand the emergent flow behaviour and resulting saturation patterns in NFRs. Thus, classical simulation approaches, such as dual-continua conceptualizations, can be critically evaluated and improved where they fail to capture the flow behaviour of interest. This paper discusses recent advances in DFM simulation of single- and multi-phase flow processes in geologically realistic outcrop-analogue models, and solved with finite-element (FE) and finite-volume (FV) methods. It also reviews key results from recent DFM simulation studies, in particular how new measures such as the fracture–matrix flux ratio and velocity spectra can provide new means to analyse flow behaviour in heterogeneous domains or how results from outcrop-based simulations can be used to test the suitability of conventional upscaling approaches for NFR and guide the development of new ones. We close by enlisting outstanding challenges in outcrop-based flow simulations such as the need to capture the fracture–matrix transfer processes due to capillary, gravity and viscous forces accurately, which often implies detailed grid refinement at the fracture–matrix interface and small time-steps to resolve the physical processes adequately. Thus, we explore how outcrop-based flow simulation could be applied more routinely in NFR reservoir characterization and simulation workflows.

A multiple-continuum model for simulating single-phase and multiphase flow in naturally fractured vuggy reservoirs

The existence of vugs or cavities in naturally fractured reservoirs has long been observed. Even though these vugs are known for their large attribution to reserves of oil, natural gas, or groundwater, few quantitative investigations of fractured vuggy reservoirs have been conducted. In this paper, a multiple-continuum conceptual model is presented, based on geological data and observations of core samples from carbonate formations in China, to investigate single-phase and multiphase flow behavior in such vuggy fractured reservoirs. The conceptual model has been implemented into a three-dimensional, three-phase reservoir simulator with a generalized multiple-continuum modeling approach. The conceptual model considers fractured vuggy rock as a triple- or multiple-continuum medium, consisting of (1) highly permeable and well-connected fractures, (2) low-permeability rock matrix, and (3) various-sized vugs. The matrix system may contain a large number of small or isolated cavities, whereas vugs are larger cavities, indirectly connected to fractures through small fractures, microfractures or matrix. Similar to the conventional double-porosity model, the fracture continuum is primarily responsible for the occurrence of global flow, while vuggy and matrix continua, providing storage space, are locally connected to each other and interacting with globally connecting fractures. In addition, flow in fractured vuggy reservoirs may be further complicated by occurrence of non-Darcy's and other nonlinear flow behavior, because of large pore space and high-permeability flow channels. To account for such complicated flow regime, our model formulation includes non-Darcy flow using the multiphase extension of the Forchheimer equation as well as flow according to parallel-wall fracture and tube models, based on solutions of flow through a parallel-wall, uniform fracture and Hagen–Poiseuille tube flow.

Changes in fracture aperture and fluid pressure due to thermal stress and silica dissolution/precipitation induced by heat extraction from subsurface rocks

The numerical model developed by Suresh Kumar and Ghassemi [Suresh Kumar, G., Ghassemi, A., 2005. Numerical modeling of non-isothermal quartz dissolution in a coupled fracture–matrix system. Geothermics 34, 411–439] is used to study fluid pressure and permeability changes in a fracture in a rock mass by taking into account the effects of thermal stresses and silica precipitation/dissolution, which is computed using linear reaction kinetics. Fluid flow in the fracture is calculated based on the cubic law. Solute transport mechanisms by advection and dispersion are included in the model. Mass exchange between the horizontal fracture and the rock matrix is accounted for by assuming diffusion-limited solute transport. Heat transfer between the fracture and the rock matrix is modeled considering only conduction, while heat transport within the fracture includes thermal advection, conduction, and dispersion in the horizontal plane. Pressures of the circulating fluid through the fracture are allowed to vary with time, while the flow rate is assumed to remain constant. A series of numerical experiments are carried out to simulate a fluid injection/production operation. The temporal variation of fracture aperture in response to the individual and combined effects of thermal stress and silica dissolution/precipitation is examined. The results show that, for lower initial fracture apertures, the significant increase in fracture permeability and the associated pressure drop at the injection point are mostly attributable to thermoelastic effects, while the increase in fracture aperture near the production well is mainly the result of silica dissolution. On the other hand, for larger initial apertures, the effects of silica precipitation/dissolution are minimal and thermoelastic effects are prevalent, as the intensity of coupling between the high-permeability fractures and the low-permeability rock matrix becomes weaker.

Fracture Characterization Using Borehole Radar: Numerical Modeling

Forward modeling of borehole radar data for a series of synthetic discrete-fracture network (DFN) models provides a conceptual framework for interpreting experimental field data at fractured rock sites. A finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) radar wave propagation model was developed for this purpose. Synthetic examples demonstrate the utility of single-hole reflection-mode and cross-hole transmission-mode borehole radar for (1) identification of fracture location and orientation, and (2) identification of fracture pore-fluid properties, which might change as a result of tracer tests or flooding exercises in support of resource development or site remediation. A two-dimensional, synthetic DFN was generated statistically based on hypothetical distributions of fracture length, orientation, aperture, permeability, and inter-connectivity. The DFN includes a zone of permeable fractures embedded within a network of lower-permeability fractures and a low-permeability rock matrix. We modeled the unconnected and non-permeable fractures as being filled with freshwater. To simulate tracer experiments, contaminant releases, or engineered-remediation processes, we considered alternately the inter-connected, permeable fractures to be filled with freshwater air, or saline water (tracer). Synthetic radar data sets for both single-hole reflection and cross-hole transmission modes were generated. The features in synthetic radargrams were then examined and compared to the DFN model to evaluate the likelihood of identifying fracture location, orientation, and pore fluid in field situations. This comparison demonstrates that (1) the replacement of freshwater with saline water in permeable fractures generally increases the amplitude of reflections from permeable, connected fractures; and (2) in general, radar reflection-mode data contains more information about fracture properties than transmission-mode data.

Microbial and Waterflooding of Fractured Carbonate Rocks: An Experimental Approach

Fractures and fractured zones require special attention while formulating a reservoir development plan. They may improve or hinder the oil production. Conductive fracture rocks may provide the required permeability to drain an oil saturated low permeability rock matrix. Low sweep efficiency of many oil reservoirs is the result of channelling of injected water through high permeability zones that are normally associated with naturally fractured systems in heterogeneous reservoirs. In this case, a substantial amount of effort needs to be focused on improving the distribution of injected water in the wellbore through different treatments, such as using gelling agents, cements, cross-linked polymer and emulsions. Other alternatives such as microbial and surfactant based methods have been proposed. This paper presents the results of research conducted on thermophilic bacteria that were obtained from UAE local environment. Coreflooding experiments were conducted on fractured single cores to show the effectiveness of microbial treatment. Different fracture angle orientations of 45°, 90°, and 180° relevant to the axis of the flow were investigated. The effect of matrix permeability on the treatment was also studied. A comparison between water flooding and microbial flooding of fractured systems was conducted. A non-invasive imaging technique—Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)—was employed to visualize changes on the surface of the fracture as a result of bacteria flow through the system.

Numerical simulation of multiphase flow and phase partitioning in discretely fractured geologic media

The three-dimensional compositional model CompFlow has been extended to allow the simulation of the multiphase advective, dispersive and diffusive flux of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) contaminants in a discrete-fracture network, allowing for phase partitioning and dynamic interactions between the fracture network and the surrounding low-permeability rock matrix. The approach used to couple fluxes between the fractures and matrix allows representation of capillary pressure differences within the fractures and matrix and makes no assumption of equilibrium hydraulic conditions between the two. The model is verified for the case of aqueous-phase solute transport by comparison with an analytical solution. An example problem is presented involving the migration of a dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) consisting of trichlorethylene (TCE) in a single vertical fracture within a low-permeability material with significant matrix porosity. The simulation results demonstrate that matrix diffusion acts to transfer significant amounts of contaminant to the matrix in the aqueous phase. After the DNAPL source is removed, the NAPL ultimately disappears from the fracture due to partitioning of contaminant into the aqueous phase with concomitant matrix diffusion. It is shown that as the porosity of the matrix increases, the rate of migration of the TCE DNAPL front within fractures is retarded, due to dissolution and matrix diffusion. The sensitivity of DNAPL migration within the fracture to the form of the relative permeability relationship is also discussed. The model is then used to highlight the potential for deep DNAPL penetration through a vertical cross-section consisting of a shallow unconfined sand aquifer and a deeper sand aquifer separated by a layer of fractured clay. Vertical fractures through the clay that hydraulically connects the shallow and deep aquifers are shown to be capable of transmitting both dissolved contaminant and DNAPL to the underlying aquifer, with DNAPL travel times through the 5-m thick clay unit being on the order of days. For the scenarios examined, the DNAPL entering the lower aquifer via the fractured clay unit may completely dissolve at the aquifer–aquitard interface due to lateral groundwater flow in the lower aquifer, provided the aperture of the vertical fractures in the clay layer are less than about 30 μm; however, some DNAPLs may penetrate into the lower aquifer and exist as a non-aqueous phase if the fracture apertures in the clay layer are 50 μm in size or larger. In this latter case, the presence of the DNAPL in the lower aquifer acts as a persistent source of groundwater contamination and can produce an extensive plume in the direction of groundwater flow.