Low Impact Development Systems Research Articles

A holistic analysis of Chinese sponge city cases by region: Using PLS-SEM models to understand key factors impacting LID performance

Sponge city is a national sustainable stormwater management program proposed by the Chinese government to deal with urban water issues (e.g., flooding, poor water quality) brought on by climate change and urbanization. Various strategies for sponge city construction are required since environmental constraints differ regionally across the country. To identify regional variations, reveal the inner links between externalities and design elements in sponge city construction, and offer practical suggestions, efforts in two directions are made based on the data of 68 sponge city cases around China: 1) discussing design parameters of four Low Impact Development (LID) facilities, including bioretention cell, permeable pavement, grass swale, and sunken green space, under four regionalization maps of hydrologic, climatic, landform and soil texture factors, and 2) building a holistic Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) model illustrating the relationship between local characteristics, LID system design, and LID system performance in sponge city construction. The results show that: 1) rainfall and landform factors have great impact on LID facilities design, as their depths tend to be higher in water rich areas and coastal areas. 2) LID types and areas are positively influenced (+0.745) by the total area and permeable portion of a project, while the LID system performance (water quantity and quality control) is negatively impacted (−0.407) by the rainfall amount and clay fraction. 3) comprehensive LIDs choice instead of single LID facility shows more significant effect on improving LID system performance. It is recommended to establish different design standards and assessment indexing systems tailored to local environment when constructing sponge city projects.

Modeling the effect of land use change to design a suitable low impact development (LID) system to control surface water pollutants

Growth in urbanization has led to increased impervious surfaces, exacerbating flood risks and water quality degradation. This study investigated the impact of land use change and Low-Impact Development (LID) systems on urban runoff quality and quantity in the second region of Tehran. Pioneering an innovative approach, the integration of the Land Change Modeler (LCM) with the Stormwater Management Model (SWMM) signifies a paradigm shift in urban water management. Combined with other hydrological models, this new approach provides a comprehensive method for assessing the future effectiveness of LID practices. The Event Mean Concentration Method (EMC) was used in this study to measure Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Phosphorus (TP), and Zinc (Zn) in urban runoff from five land uses. Results pinpointed transportation land uses as the primary source of pollutants. Using LCM, the study forecasted a surge in urban runoff pollutants by 2030, particularly in the Northwest area of the region due to anticipated land use shifts towards commercial and residential land uses. Model results showed an 11 % increase in TSS over a decade, highlighting the importance of land use change in runoff quality. The study used three types of LIDs to reduce contaminants in dense urban areas. Assessing the impact of LID scenarios on runoff pollutants using SWMM revealed that the bio-retention cell had the best performance, reducing TSS by 20.92 %, and the vegetative swale had the worst performance, reducing TSS by 8.43 %. The study also concluded that combining LIDs would be more effective than using them separately. The results of this study suggest that LID systems can be an effective way to reduce urban runoff pollutants and improve water quality in the second region of Tehran. However, more research is needed to optimize the design and placement of LID systems in different urban areas.

Ranking the optimal combination of low-impact urban development systems under climate change with the TODIM multi-criteria decision-making method

One of the strategies to manage and reduce the problems caused by floods is to use different Low-Impact Development (LID) systems. Due to the existence of different types of LID systems, it is difficult to choose the best combination of them. The purpose of this research is to rank different LID systems and choose the best combination or arrangement of them under climate change using TODIM multi-criteria decision making method, which has not been done so far, in the northernmost of Tehran city (Iran), which also includes part of Tehran municipality districts 1 and 3 and it is adjacent to Tehran municipality district 6. Previously by the authors, surface runoff in the near future (2030–2047) and far future (2048–2065) under three scenarios of Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP2.6), (RCP4.5), and (RCP8.5) with the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was simulated (Dougaheh et al., 2023). Next the LID systems, including Vegetative Swale, bio-retention cell, infiltration trench and permeable pavement, are optimized with Multi-Objective Harris Hawks Optimization (MOHHO) algorithm. Then, using the Pareto Fronts obtained from the optimization algorithm, seven combinations of different LID systems were extracted as final alternatives. Then, the objective functions of the optimization algorithm, including the minimization of the volume of outflow runoff of the basin and the minimization of the cost of construction and maintenance of LID, are determined as problem criteria and weighted by the Entropy-Shannon method. The results show that the volume of urban runoff with the use of LID systems, in all future time periods under RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 scenarios, will decrease by an average of 54% compared to the baseline time period, and the maximum percentage of volume reduction of the flood is related to the baseline period. In the future research, taking into account the qualitative parameters, the performance of the urban runoff collection system can be evaluated qualitatively in addition to quantitatively.

Distribution of microplastics in rainfall and their control by a permeable pavement in low-impact development facility

Microplastics (MPs) released from plastic products in daily life are present in the air and could be transported to freshwater environments along with rain. Recently, low-impact development (LID) facilities, such as permeable pavements, have been used to treat non-point source pollutants, including rainfall runoff. While runoff is treated by LID facilities, the periodic monitoring of MPs in rainfall and the efficiency of removal of MPs through LID facilities have rarely been investigated. Therefore, this case study focused on monitoring MPs in rainwater runoff and permeate from a permeable pavement in Busan, South Korea, thus evaluating the removal efficiency of MPs by a LID system. The initial rainfall runoff and permeate through the LID system were sampled, and the amounts, types, sizes, and shapes of MPs in the samples were analyzed using micro-Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The results showed that the distribution of MPs in the initial rainfall was affected by population in tested area. Polyethylene was the most common type of MPs in all the samples. Polyamide was only found in the LID samples because of the pollution caused by water flows and pavement materials. Fragment type MPs was most commonly observed and consisted of relatively small-sized (under 100 μm) particles. LID facilities were able to capture approximately 98% of MPs in the rainfall through a filtration process in the permeable pavement.

Assessing the Performance and Challenges of Low-Impact Development under Climate Change: A Bibliometric Review

Low-Impact Development (LID) represents a cogent strategy designed to conserve or reestablish antecedent hydrological states through an array of innovative mechanisms and methodologies. Since the dawn of the millennium, LID-centric research has demonstrated a persistent upward trajectory, mainly focusing on its capacity to mitigate climate change repercussions, particularly runoff and peak flows. However, a standardized rubric and toolkit for LID evaluation remain elusive. While numerous studies have documented the hydrological and water quality benefits of LID, the impacts of climate change on its effectiveness remain uncertain due to varying spatial and temporal climate patterns. This comprehensive review examined 1355 peer-reviewed articles in English, comprising both research articles and reviews, indexed in the Web of Science up until 2022. Findings from the bibliometric analysis revealed significant contributions and emergent trends in the field. Notably, there is an increasing emphasis on performance evaluation and efficiency of LID systems, and on understanding their impact on hydrology and water quality. However, this review identified the lack of a standardized LID evaluation framework and the uncertainty in LID effectiveness due to varying climate patterns. Furthermore, this study highlighted the urgent need for optimization of current hydrological models, advancement of LID optimization, modeling, monitoring, and performance, and stakeholder awareness about LID functionality. This review also underscored the potential future research trajectories, including the need to quantify LID’s effectiveness in urban flooding and water quality management and refining LID simulation models. Cumulatively, this review consolidates contemporaneous and prospective research breakthroughs in urban LID, serving as an indispensable compendium for academics and practitioners in the discipline.

Resilience Quantification of Low-Impact Development Systems Using SWMM and a Probabilistic Approach

Resilience Quantification of Low-Impact Development Systems Using SWMM and a Probabilistic Approach

A Review of Low-Impact Development Factors Affecting Managed Aquifer Recharge.

Low-impact development (LID) technology for stormwater control has a number of forms, some of which relate to managed aquifer recharge to provide adequate safe water to communities. Stormwater collected through LID for managed aquifer recharge shifts water quantity and quality effects from surface waters to groundwater. Factors affecting quantity and quality of recharge influence and are influenced by state/local land development policy, state/local groundwater policy, regulation and codes and climate change effects, as well as pretreatment requirements. Groundwater quality effects of untreated stormwater infiltration by LID in a range of hydrogeologic settings are not well understood. Site selection for LID will include hydrogeologic considerations, onsite footprint and construction factors. Cost of the technology has a wide range of typically low-cost options. Lessons learned include: matching technology to hydrogeologic setting; state/local policy should serve to avoid hydraulic and pollutant effects, particularly high water impacts; representative groundwater monitoring adds safeguard to water supply; and LID systems designs should consider life cycle costing including vulnerable geology, not just low installation cost.

Comparative performance and cost-integrated life cycle assessment of low impact development controls for sustainable stormwater management

Climate change and urbanization have led to an increase in the frequency and intensity of floods in urban regions. To cope with such extreme events, low impact development (LID) has been adopted as a sustainable alternative to conventional stormwater management systems. LID controls mitigate runoff and manage flooding at the source by providing additional storage, filtration, and infiltration of stormwater. This study aims to investigate the techno-economic and environmental performance of multiple LID controls: bioretention cells (BC), infiltration trenches (IT), and permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) compared to a conventional stormwater pipe drainage system. A cost-integrated life cycle analysis was conducted to assess the environmental impacts and evaluate the financial feasibility of the examined stormwater management systems. An eco-efficiency analysis (EEA) was carried out to quantify the environmental costs of LID controls by incorporating the results of a life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost analysis (LCCA). The technical analysis showed that LID controls significantly reduced runoff by 67%, 53%, and 36% for IT, BC, and PICP, respectively compared to the conventional system. Moreover, the LCA results revealed that the pipe drainage system was the least favorable with a single score of 191 mPt, followed by PICP (188 mPt), BC (40 mPt), and IT (30 mPt). Over a 30-year assessment period, the LCCA findings indicated that the IT and BC controls had the lowest net present costs of $11.6 and $14.5 million, respectively, compared to the PICP ($17.0 million) and conventional ($19.5 million) systems. The EEA revealed that IT was the most eco-efficient (EI = 0.34 Pt/$) among the LID systems, whereas PICP was the least cost-efficient (EI = 0.97 Pt/$). It was also found that applying hybrid LID models further reduced the runoff, environmental impacts, and financial burdens by up to 79%, 84%, and 48%, respectively. Overall, these findings emphasized the potential environmental and financial benefits of implementing integrated LID controls as sustainable stormwater management systems.

SWMM-Based Assessment of Urban Mountain Stormwater Management Effects under Different LID Scenarios

The types of urban mountains are diverse, and the surrounding environment is complex. The conditions of runoff generation and convergence in different regions of the same mountain vary. Using the Lijia Mountain in China’s Nanjing City as a case study, this study investigates the effects of such mountain-region-based LID (Low Impact Development) systems. Based on the hydrological analysis of this mountain region, SWMM (Storm Water Management Model) software is used to model and compare the runoff control effects of two LID systems schemes, namely segmental detention and retention and terminal detention and retention. The study’s findings demonstrate that the terminal detention and retention scheme can effectively delay the time of peak flooding and partly reduce peak discharge. In contrast, the segmental detention and retention scheme has a limited delay effect on flood peaks but significantly reduces the peak discharge. This research breaks through the limitations of the previous construction of a single LID scheme for mountainous regions in built-up urban areas. It serves as a theoretical model and technical reference for selecting LID scenarios in response to different mountain conditions.

Phosphorus and nitrogen removal from water using steel slag in soil-based low-impact development systems

This study applied waste steelmaking slags [including basic oxygen furnace slag and electric arc furnace slag] in a multi-soil-layering system for phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen removal from domestic wastewater. In the multi-soil-layering system, the slags were replaced in the soil mixture block layers (in brick-like patterns) or the permeable layers. For water feed containing approximately 20 mg/L of total phosphorus and 12 mg/L of ammonia nitrogen, the best phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen removal efficiencies of 93% and 84%, respectively, were achieved within 5 h of reaction. Mixing 25% basic oxygen furnace slag in the system provided a >85% phosphorus removal efficiency, especially in the soil mixture block layers. The phosphorus precipitation activated by released iron ions was the dominant mechanism rather than phosphorus adsorption onto zeolite/soil. An iron content of approximately 10% in the soil mixture block layers and permeable layers contributed to phosphorus removal efficiencies of 43% and 86%, respectively. Zeolite in the permeable layers was more helpful than gravel for reducing pollutants. This study shows that using steel slags is suggested with the inherent characteristics of the media in the soil-based low impact systems.

Application of soil-based low-impact development system for Flash Flood management of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Jeddah is the most important port city in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The climate of Jeddah is mostly dry; however, events of intensive rainfall followed by urban flooding have been reported in recent history. These floods interrupt the logistics and lifelines of the city. In this study runoff analysis and Flash Flood management by the green roof low impact development (LID) control system, was performed using United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s Stormwater Management Model (SWMM). Six middle districts of Jeddah city had been selected and modeled in five sub-catchment areas. The local soil and geographic conditions were incorporated into the model. The effect of the soil-based, rooftop, LID system has been emphasized in the analysis. In flood simulations, 30–70% of the impervious area of each sub-catchment has been treated with LID. It has been observed that the LID application can significantly reduce the overall flood flow. Thus, simple but well-planned LID control systems can be effectively utilized for the flood management of heavily urbanized regions.

Developing an urban runoff management model by using satellite precipitation datasets to allocate low impact development systems under climate change conditions

Developing an urban runoff management model by using satellite precipitation datasets to allocate low impact development systems under climate change conditions

Monitoring and Evaluating Rainfall–Runoff Control Effects of a Low Impact Development System in Future Science Park of Beijing

AbstractMonitoring and evaluating on rainfall–runoff control effects are important in low impact development (LID) practices. This is mainly done for different individual LID facility at microscales; however, some LID systems comprise multiple facilities within a large‐scale area. Here, the Future Science Park (FSP) of Beijing City was selected as the study area. The rainfall–runoff control effects of an LID system are monitored and examined, including not only the rainfall volume capture effect but also the rainfall control mode, which is influenced by the confluence relationship. The confluence relationship between an impervious surface and LID facility can be manifest as a series or as parallel systems. When rainfall is less than the water quality capture volume, rainfall control operates in event‐capture mode for a series system and in partial‐capture mode for a parallel system. A series system is more suitable for water quality improvement and peak flow reduction. The results for the FSP indicated that the rainfall volume capture effect was acceptable; the average runoff coefficient of 16 rainfall events was about 0.10. However, rainfall control operated in a partial‐capture mode. For individual rainfall events smaller than the designed rainfall, small amounts of runoff were generated mainly by the impermeable road network. In future, the impermeable roads and green belt areas alongside the roads should include a series confluence to improve rainfall–runoff control effects.

The Web-GIS TRIG Eau Platform to Assess Urban Flood Mitigation by Domestic Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Two Residential Settlements in Italy

Urban flooding has become one of the most frequent natural disasters in recent years, and the low-impact development (LID) approach is currently recognised as an alternative to traditional grey infrastructure to mitigate the negative impact of urbanisation on hydrological processes. The main objective of the present research was to develop a web-GIS platform in order to assess the impact of LID systems on mitigating urban flooding and to support their implementation at the urban catchment scale. The TRIG Eau platform, developed in the framework of the homonymous INTERREG MARITTIMO IT-FR project, is configured as a web-GIS application of the stormwater management model (SWMM). Urban flood conditions were examined for two case studies in Liguria and Tuscany (IT), where DRWH systems are proposed as a mitigation strategy. The presented results and their visualisation showcase the potential of the TRIG Eau platform to better support the implementation of LIDs. Findings from the flood analysis confirm that even for the 10-year return period event, DRWHs are effective in reducing network stress by more than 70% in cases of empty tanks, thus underlining the need for RTC technology to pre-empty the system.

Stormwater calculation application for low impact development in the conceptual design phase of urban site development

There are many existing Low Impact Development (LID) applications available to calculate stormwater runoff volume, but they often fail to address LID systems in the initial design stages. To address this problem a LID application was developed for international use that supports designers considering how to reduce stormwater runoff through LID strategies. The result is an iterative design process that allows designers to visualize results. This helps users make informed decisions when it comes to stormwater management practices that are based on a combination of readily available local climate data and existing site conditions to create preliminary runoff results.

Application of LID to the District Unit Plan and Mixed-Use Buildings: Focusing on the Case of the 1-5 Living Area in MAC

The purpose of this study is to introduce the procedure to apply LID (Low Impact Development) in developing the master plan for the mixed-use residential buildings to be built at three blocks (H5, H6, H9) in the 1-5 Living Area in the Multifunctional Administrative City. The legal background of the district unit plan was revised by adding new clauses for the definition of LID and rainwater circulation system where LID is applied. Based on the revised district unit plan regulations, several LID technologies which were appropriate for each block were selected, and they were reflected in the master plan and design guideline as a part of the rainwater circulation system. After the design guideline was developed in detail, a company that will develop the design and build was selected through a design competition. As of 2020, these mixed-use residential buildings are under construction. Once they are built and used by occupants, they will enable researchers to empirically evaluate the benefits of LID by showing how rainwater circulates and how LID works in the building and area.

Mineralogical evidence of unfavorable geochemical interactions between urban runoff pollutants and filter materials in low-impact systems

We report on the geochemical interactions between a synthetic urban runoff (SUR) and the minerals of materials used in a multi-layered column filter (soil, sand, gravel, and tezontle) at the laboratory scale, which mimicked an unvegetated low-impact development (LID) system. After five 8 h infiltration cycles using the SUR, the average concentrations of Pb and Mn decreased slightly at the column outlet, as did HCO3−, SO42-, and Na+, whereas Mg increased and Cl−, Ca2+, and K+ were only detected at the outlet. The filter materials were comprised of silicates, Mn-bearing oxides (hausmannite and manganite), carbonates (calcite), chlorides (sylvite), and sulfates (anglesite, lanarkite, barite, and epsomite). PHREEQC modeling allowed the identification of the geochemical processes that occurred in the filter. The results showed the removal capacity of the filter materials through the formation of secondary minerals such as rhodochrosite (MnCO3) and the over-saturation of anglesite (PbSO4), and also showed that they may mobilize ions from the upper to the interior layers (as Mg2+ from epsomite, MgSO4·7H2O, and Ba2+ from barite, BaSO4). We highlight the importance of knowing the geological nature of filter materials used in LID systems because they may lead to the geogenic mobilization of toxic contaminants to the environment.

On the LID systems effectiveness for urban stormwater management: case study in Southern Italy

Here we present the hydrological effectiveness of Low Impact development (LID) solutions at urban catchment scale, by modelling a highly urbanised area located in South Italy. For the model creation and simulation, PCSWMM based on the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was used. The analysis was carried out by considering different land use conversion scenarios including the implementation of LID practices. Therefore, a specific permeable pavement and green roof developed and implemented at full scale at University of Calabria were chosen as source-control measures. The simulations were run by using as input a synthetic hyetograph of 30 min with return period of 10 years. Three hydrological performance indexes, Runoff Coefficient (RC), Runoff Reduction (RR) and Peak Flow Reduction (PFR) were evaluated at subcatchment scale and, a mean value was estimated for an overall evaluation. Main findings show that RR and PFR linearly increase with the reduction of imperviousness due to the modelling of a major percentage of LID solutions, while the RC decreases. In addition, first detailed results reveal the suitability of LID solutions to reduce surface runoff also for the scenario 1 which considers the conversion of only 30% of specific impervious surface in green roofs and permeable pavements.

An analysis of storage and runoff reduction characteristics using planter box in architectural LID system

Recently, research about Low-Impact Development (LID) techniques has been expanded due to problems with the effects of climate change and urbanization that have been increasing. LID technology is used to control flood damage environmentally to reduce runoff and is reduce runoff on city also restore into previous water circulation system from present developed city. However, studies about quantitative data of LID techniques are insufficient. Therefore in this study, the Curve Number (CN) was calculated with the Planter Box, which is storage type LID technology to conduct the water circulation (infiltration, runoff, overflow) analysis. Rainfall intensity scenario (60.4 mm/hr, 83.1 mm/hr, 97.4 mm/hr, 108.2 mm/hr) about water circulation analysis of Planter Box is selected on the basis of probable rainfall intensity table. According to the experimental results, the storage rate of rainwater in Building Planter Box and Street Planter Box was 43.5% to 52.9% and 33.4% to 39%, respectively. In addition, CN value is estimated to 83 at the Planter box and the runoff reduction effect by applying Horton's infiltration capacity curve showed on 51% to 98%.

Nutrient retention by different substrates from an improved low impact development system

The reuse of water in agriculture has become more common in water management worldwide. However, there is very limited information about nutrient retention in water reclamation management. In this study, an improved low impact development (LID) practice was constructed to investigate the synergistic effects of three substrates amendment on nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) retention under two irrigation modules: spray and drip irrigation. The orthogonal combination of the three substrates was controlled during four leaching events, with polyacrylamide (PAM), peat soil, and straw biochar application rates of 1, 2, and 4 g kg−1; 5, 10, and 20 g kg−1; and 10, 20, and 40 g kg−1, respectively. Results showed that the optimum treatments for N and P were 2 g kg−1 of PAM; 2 g kg−1 of PAM, 10 g kg−1 of peat soil, and 40 g kg−1 of straw biochar, respectively. The highest amounts of N and P retention under spray and drip irrigation were 83.12 mg N kg−1 and 50.09 mg N·kg−1, and 11.88 mg P·kg−1 and 7.47 mg P·kg−1, respectively. The analysis of variance indicated that PAM, biochar, and peat soil affected the retention of leachate, N, and P differently. PAM application could not only improve the water, N, P retention capacity of soil, but also significantly increase the content of ＞2 mm water-stable soil aggregate (WSA) (p＜0.05), and there is an advisable linear relation between N, P retention and the content of ＞2 mm WSA (R2 = 0.79, 0.67, respectively). Overall, this study concludes that a combined application of PAM and biochar could reduce P loss and increase the ＞2 mm WSA under leaching condition.