Low-frequency Sweep Research Articles

Low-Frequency Sweep Design—A Case Study in Middle East Desert Environments

Low-Frequency Sweep Design—A Case Study in Middle East Desert Environments

Characteristic analysis and data comparative of linear and nonlinear low-frequency sweep in vibroseis

Abstract Low-frequency seismic data plays a crucial role in seismic data processing and seismic wave inversion. At present, there are two methods to realize the low-frequency excitation of vibrators: one is exciting low-frequency vibrators by linear sweep signals, and the other is exciting conventional vibrators by nonlinear low-frequency sweep signals. The cost of exploration using low-frequency vibroseis is high, and it is challenging to obtain sufficient low-frequency information using traditional vibrators. To this end, this paper comparatively studies the low-frequency sweep signal characteristics and data effects of low-frequency and traditional vibrators. Therefore, three kinds of linear and nonlinear low-frequency sweep signal are designed. Theoretical analysis shows that there are certain differences between linear and nonlinear signal in design methods, signal shapes, etc., but after correlation calculations the signal spectra reflecting the seismic response and the related wavelet shapes are basically consistent. Besides, the actual force signal data shows that the linear and nonlinear harmonic distortion are basically equivalent. Finally, based on the forward simulation of three sweep signals and the comparative analysis of field test data, it can be considered that the linear and nonlinear low-frequency sweep signals of vibrators have almost the same denoising ability under the basic conditions of the spectrum and wavelet. Both can achieve low-frequency excitation and obtain rich low-frequency information, and the quality of seismic data is basically the same, so they can be applied in practical production.

Rapid Frequency Variations Within Intense Chorus Wave Packets

AbstractWhistler mode chorus waves are responsible for electron acceleration in Earth's radiation belts. It is unclear, however, whether the observed acceleration is still well described by quasi‐linear theory, or if this acceleration is due to intense waves that require nonlinear treatment. Here, we perform a comprehensive statistical analysis of intense lower‐band chorus wave packets to investigate the relationships between wave frequency variations, packet length, and wave amplitude, and their temporal variability. We find that 15% of the wave power is carried by long packets, with low frequency sweep rates (linear trend in time) that agree with the nonlinear theory of chorus wave growth. Eighty‐five percent of the wave power, however, comes from short packets with large frequency variations around the linear trend. The kappa‐like probability distribution of these variations is consistent with random superposition of different waves that could result in a destruction of nonlinear resonant interaction.

Data processing of a wide-azimuth, broadband, high-density 3D seismic survey using a low-frequency vibroseis: a case study from Northeast China

Seismic exploration employing wide-azimuth, broadband, high-density data (i.e. double-width single-height; “double-width” means wide-azimuth and broadband; “single-height” means high-density data, generally referring to small-bin-size data (less than 10 × 10 m); and double-width single-height is an abbreviation) enables more complete wave field information to be recorded, reduces aliasing, and produces abundant low-frequency information, which is conducive to broadband processing and the anisotropic study of seismic data. Based on the acquired double-width single-height seismic data, in this paper, we analyse the wave field characteristics, signal-to-noise ratio and frequency of seismic data. We also design a procedure for processing double-width single-height seismic data. The key techniques in the proposed procedure focus on the high-resolution amplitude-preserved characteristics of double-width single-height seismic data obtained with a low-frequency vibroseis sweep. Faults and sand bodies are characterised and described by using the final imaging results, which embody the advantages of double-width single-height seismic exploration.

Low-frequency Vibroseis: current achievements and the road ahead?

Extending the seismic signal frequency towards low frequencies has become almost standard on seismic projects, owing to the benefits it provides in terms of vertical resolution, signal penetration, inversion workflow results or ease of interpretation. Vibroseis is preferred to explosives not only for its productivity, but also for the control it allows over frequencies generated. While Vibroseis equipment has been improved in recent years, discrepancies are observed in the equipment and methods used, in particular in the design of low-frequency sweeps. A desire for lower frequencies seems also to guide the development of some vibrators, at the expense of technical complexity, higher cost and reduced performance at higher frequencies. However, if the need for broader frequencies is not questioned, the right level of low-frequency energy necessary for imaging and interpretation purposes is still not clearly defined by the industry, at the risk that the current focus for more powerful lower frequencies could be a temporary trend. This paper discusses achievements in equipment and methods, and speculates on the future of low-frequency Vibroseis.

The low-frequency seismic vibrator: design and experimental verification

Extending the Vibroseis acquisition bandwidth towards low frequencies has become an increasing trend in land seismic exploration. It is clear that adding low-frequency content to seismic data can be beneficial to enabling waveform inversion for velocity model determination or refinement, improving the resolution of seismic data and obtaining structural information of deeper reservoirs. These geophysical benefits have been highlighted by many authors, for example Baeten et al. (2013) and Mahrooqi et al. (2012). However, using the Vibroseis method to acquire low frequency seismic data becomes very challenging. Owing to mechanical and hydraulic limitations, most conventional seismic vibrators cannot produce sufficient low-frequency force for transmission of seismic energy into deep ground below 10 Hz. Because of this fact many sweep design techniques aimed at enhancing the Vibroseis low-frequency contents have been developed (Bagaini 2006, 2008; Sallas 2010; Baeten 2011). These low frequency sweeps can enable conventional vibrators to shake as close as possible to their low-frequency mechanical limitations. Unfortunately, this approach requires a lower drive level and hence a slower sweep rate resulting in a longer sweep length. Therefore, the generation of extra low-frequency bandwidth with low frequency sweep methods usually has an impact on productivity.

Fracture detection via correlating P-wave amplitude variation with offset and azimuth analysis and well data in eastern central Saudi Arabia

The late Carboniferous clastic Unayzah-C in eastern central Saudi Arabia is a low-porosity, possibly fractured reservoir. Mapping the Unayzah-C is a challenge due to the low signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and limited bandwidth in the conventional 3D seismic data. A related challenge is delineating and characterizing fracture zones within the Unayzah-C. Full-azimuth 3D broadband seismic data were acquired using point receivers, low-frequency sweeps down to 2 Hz, and 6 km patch geometry. The data indicate significant enhancement in continuity and resolution of the reflection data, leading to improved mapping of the Unayzah-C. Because the data set has a rectangular patch geometry with full inline offsets to 6000 m, using amplitude variation with offset and azimuth (AVOA) may be effective to delineate and characterize fracture zones within Unayzah-A and Unayzah-C. The study was undertaken to determine the improvement of wide-azimuth seismic data in fracture detection in clastic reservoirs. The results were validated with available well data including borehole images, well tests, and production data in the Unayzah-A. There are no production data or borehole images within the Unayzah-C. For validation, we had to refer to a comparison of alternative seismic fracture detection methods, mainly curvature and coherence. Anisotropy was found to be weak, which may be due to noise, clastic lithology, and heterogeneity of the reservoirs, in both reservoirs except for along the western steep flank of the study area. These may correspond to some north–south-trending faults suggested by circulation loss and borehole image data in a few wells. The orientation of the long axis of the anisotropy ellipses is northwest–southeast, and it is not in agreement with the north–south structural trend. No correlation was found among the curvature, coherence, and AVOA in Unayzah-A or Unayzah-C. Some possible explanations for the low correlation between the AVOA ellipticity and the natural fractures are a noisy data set, overburden anisotropy, heterogeneity, granulation seams, and deformation.

Spectral call features provide information about the aggression level of greater mouse-eared bats (Myotis myotis) during agonistic interactions

Bats rely heavily on acoustic signals in order to communicate with each other in a variety of social contexts. Among those, agonistic interactions and accompanying vocalizations have received comparatively little study. Here, we studied the communicational behaviour between male greater mouse-eared bats (Myotis myotis) during agonistic encounters. Two randomly paired adult males were placed in a box that allowed us to record video and sound synchronously. We describe their vocal repertoire and compare the acoustic structure of vocalizations between two aggression levels, which we quantified via the bats’ behaviour. By inspecting thirty, one-minute long encounters, we identified a rich variety of social calls that can be described as two basic call types: echolocation-like, low-frequency sweeps and long, broadband squawks. Squawks, the most common vocalization, were often noisy, i.e. exhibited a chaotic spectral structure. We further provide evidence for individual signatures and the presence of nonlinear phenomena in this species’ vocal repertoire. As the usage and acoustic structure of vocalizations is known to encode the internal state of the caller, we had predicted that the spectral structure of squawks would be affected by the caller’s aggression level. Confirming our hypothesis, we found that increased aggression positively correlated with an increase in call frequency and tonality. We hypothesize that the extreme spectral variability between and within squawks can be explained by small fluctuations in vocal control parameters (e.g. subglottal pressure) that are caused by the elevated arousal, which is in turn influenced by the aggression level.

Sintering, microstructure and electrical properties of 0.4(Bi0.5K0.5)TiO3-0.6BiFeO3 lead-free piezoelectric ceramics

The effect of sintering temperature on the densification, microstructure and structure of 0.4(Bi0.5K0.5)TiO3-0.6BiFeO3 lead-free piezoelectric ceramics is assessed. The 0.4(Bi0.5K0.5)TiO3-0.6BiFeO3 powders were prepared by using the mixed-oxide method and were sintered at temperatures of 1000, 1050 and 1100 °C for 1 to 5 hrs. Unlike earlier work, the sintered samples showed high densities even when sintered at 1000 °C. X-ray diffraction revealed that the sintered samples shared the same rhombohedral structure as BiFeO3. With increasing sintering temperature, the rhombohedral distortion of the unit cell decreased. In addition to the relaxor-like broad peak around 400 °C, a low-temperature dielectric peak was found at temperatures below 190 °C by employing a low-frequency sweep down to 10 mHz. The DC conductivity of the 0.4(Bi0.5K0.5)TiO3-0.6BiFeO3 sample exhibited three temperature regions with activation energy values of 0.56 eV (T > 500°C), 0.72 eV (400°C < T <200°C) and 0.81 eV (T < 190°C). The characteristic transitions in the conductivity could be related to the Neel temperature (370°C) and the conductivity anomaly observed at ca. 190°C in BiFeO3.

A 3 omega method to measure an arbitrary anisotropic thermal conductivity tensor.

Previous use of the 3 omega method has been limited to materials with thermal conductivity tensors that are either isotropic or have their principal axes aligned with the natural cartesian coordinate system defined by the heater line and sample surface. Here, we consider the more general case of an anisotropic thermal conductivity tensor with finite off-diagonal terms in this coordinate system. An exact closed form solution for surface temperature has been found for the case of an ideal 3 omega heater line of finite width and infinite length, and verified numerically. We find that the common slope method of data processing yields the determinant of the thermal conductivity tensor, which is invariant upon rotation about the heater line's axis. Following this analytic result, an experimental scheme is proposed to isolate the thermal conductivity tensor elements. Using two heater lines and a known volumetric heat capacity, the arbitrary 2-dimensional anisotropic thermal conductivity tensor can be measured with a low frequency sweep. Four heater lines would be required to extend this method to measure all 6 unknown tensor elements in 3 dimensions. Experiments with anisotropic layered mica are carried out to demonstrate the analytical results.

Significant VSP data quality improvements through the use of a broadband source

SUMMARY Seismic vibrators are the preferred sources for land vertical seismic profile (VSP) surveys as they are relatively repeatable, controllable, have high energy, have a low environmental impact, and are cost-effective. Unfortunately, due to the mechanical and hydraulic constraints of the vehicles, the typical swept bandwidth has been quite limited, typically of the order of 3 octaves. In this paper we show that dramatic improvements in seismic data quality can be achieved by extending the bandwidth used for Vibroseis VSPs. These increases are dependent, however, on the use of modern vibrators, specialised low-frequency enhancing sweeps, and downhole sensors with an extended frequency response range.

On the generation of low frequencies with modern seismic vibrators

Acquiring low-frequency seismic data using Vibroseis techniques has gained attention in recent years. Successful application of low-frequency Vibroseis acquisition requires evaluating each element of the data acquisition system and ensuring that each part of the system contributes to the success of the method. We focus on generating low frequencies with Vibroseis sources rather than recording and preserving them. To generate the low-frequency signals using seismic vibrators, it is better to know (1) the hydraulic and mechanical system of the vibrator; (2) the design of a low-frequency sweep that can deliver the vibrator ground force maximally; and (3) the vibrator control system that can minimize the harmonic distortion of the vibrator ground force output at low frequencies. Field tests show that hydraulic pump flow is not a limiting factor for the generation of the low frequencies for most modern seismic vibrators. In addition, with harmonic distortion reduction control, the vibrator performance at low frequencies is improved.

Suppressing beam-centroid motion in a long-pulse linear induction accelerator

The second axis of the dual-axis radiography of hydrodynamic testing (DARHT) facility produces up to four radiographs within an interval of $1.6\text{ }\text{ }\ensuremath{\mu}\mathrm{s}$. It does this by slicing four micropulses out of a $2\mathrm{\text{\ensuremath{-}}}\ensuremath{\mu}\mathrm{s}$ long electron beam pulse and focusing them onto a bremsstrahlung converter target. The 1.8-kA beam pulse is created by a dispenser cathode diode and accelerated to more than 16 MeV by the unique DARHT Axis-II linear induction accelerator (LIA). Beam motion in the accelerator would be a problem for multipulse flash radiography. High-frequency motion, such as from beam-breakup (BBU) instability, would blur the individual spots. Low-frequency motion, such as produced by pulsed-power variation, would produce spot-to-spot differences. In this article, we describe these sources of beam motion, and the measures we have taken to minimize it. Using the methods discussed, we have reduced beam motion at the accelerator exit to less than 2% of the beam envelope radius for the high-frequency BBU, and less than $1/3$ of the envelope radius for the low-frequency sweep.

Analysis of vibrator performance at low frequencies

It has been recognized that extending the bandwidth of seismic measurements below 10 Hz can bring many benefits for geophysical exploration. Due to physical limitations in vibrator mechanical and hydraulic systems, the ability of seismic vibrators to produce significant output power at low frequencies is limited. This paper focuses on the key factors that limit vibrator performance at low frequencies and demonstrates them empirically. Our main purpose is to help geophysicists understand seismic vibrator performance at low frequencies so that they can design an optimal low frequency sweep.

Identification of Sporadic-E from Low-Frequency Sweep Polarization Records

MEASUREMENTS of the group height and sense of rotation of the polarization ellipse by Brunnschweiler1 in the swept frequency-range of 100–1,000 kc./s. have frequently displayed an interference pattern similar to those shown by the records of Fig. 1. This is an ordinary h′–f record to which has been added a sense of rotation indicator; corresponding to a dark trace, the echo polarization is a north into east rotation (N→E) while the light trace refers to the echo having a north into west rotation (N→W). Further details on the recorder design have been given by Carlson2.

Identification of Mode in Low-Frequency Sweep Ionospheric Sounding, and Interference Patterns between Overlapping Echoes

Identification of Mode in Low-Frequency Sweep Ionospheric Sounding, and Interference Patterns between Overlapping Echoes

A relationship between the lower ionosphere and the [OI] 5577 nightglow emission

The results of a study comparing 5577 A atrglow intensity with ionosphere characteristics, using observations near Boulder, Colorado, are presented. The analysts suggests that 5577 variations in airglow intensity can be correlated with variations of an ionospheric stratum. This stratum, as observed by low-frequency sweep soundings, is in the 90- to 110-km region. It is concluded that the observations do not uniquely support any one excitation mechanism for the 5577 emission. (auth)