Low Family Income Level Research Articles

Factors influencing the association between depressive symptoms and cardiovascular disease in US population

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and depression are common diseases that lead to adverse health outcomes. Depressive Symptoms may be a risk factor for CVD. But few studies focused on the impact of socioeconomic factors, common medical history and dietary intake about this association. This study analyzed National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007–2016. Complex sampling-weighted logistic regression models were used to compare the odds ratios (ORs) of CVD in participants with different depressive symptoms. 11,516 NHANES participants aged ≥ 40 years were included in the final analysis, of whom 1842 had CVD. Compared with participants with no/minimal depression, participants with mild, moderate, and moderately severe/severe depression had OR values of 1.25 (95% CI 1.01–1.54), 1.98 (95% CI 1.32–2.96), and 2.41 (95% CI 1.63–3.57). The association of depressive symptoms with CVD follow a dose-dependent pattern. The interactions of depressive symptoms with gender (Interaction P = 0.009), diabetes (Interaction P = 0.010), household income level (Interaction P = 0.002), dietary cholesterol intake (Interaction P = 0.017) on CVD were observed. More severe depressive symptoms are associated with increased risk of CVD in US population. The association may be more pronounced in the female population, population with diabetes, low family income level, or high dietary cholesterol intake.

Faktor Risiko yang Mempengaruhi Kematian Maternal

This study aims to determine the risk factors that influence maternal mortality, which consist of close determinants, intermediate determinants, and distant determinants. The method used is observational with a case-control study. The research results obtained show that the risk factors that influence maternal mortality based on multivariate analysis are pregnancy complications and late referral. In conclusion, maternal deaths are influenced by various factors such as delays in referral, especially the first delay, low levels of maternal education, low levels of family income, and the inability to implement the Mother Love Movement (GSI) optimally throughout Ermera Municipality as the government's effort to reduce maternal deaths. Keywords: Risk Factors, Maternal Death, Case-Control Study

Meta Analysis: Effects of Family Support, Family Income, and Domestic Violence on Postpartum Depression

Background: Postpartum depression is a form of depression that occurs during the puerperium with specific symptoms that appear 4-6 weeks after delivery and can last for months, affecting the happiness and emotional relationship between mother and child. This study aims to analyze the effect and estimate the size of the effect of family support, family income levels and domestic violence on the incidence of depression among postpartum women with a meta-analysis.
 Subject and Method: The meta-analysis was carried out using the PRISMA flowchart and the PICO model. Population: postpartum mothers. Intervention: strong family support, high family income levels and domestic violence. Comparison: weak family support, low family income level and no domestic violence. Outcome: postpartum depression. The online databases used are Google Scholar, Hindawi, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and ResearchGate. There were 18 cross-sectional studies published in 2013-2023 that met the inclusion criteria. Analysis was performed with RevMan 5.3.
 Results: Meta-analysis of 18 articles with cross-sectional research designs from different countries, with a sample size of 29,638 research subjects. The results of the meta-analysis show that there is an effect of family support on the risk of postpartum depression. Mothers who received high family support had a risk of experiencing postpartum depression by 0.69 times lower compared to those who received low family support (aOR= 0.69; 95% CI= 0.38 to 1.27; p=0.240). Mothers with high family income levels have a risk of experiencing postpartum depression by 0.50 times lower compared to low family income levels (aOR= 0.50; 95% CI= 0.28 to 0.90; p=0.020). Mothers who experience domestic violence have a risk of postpartum depression by 4.20 times higher compared to those who do not experience domestic violence and the relationship is statistically significant (aOR=4.20; CI 95% =2.56 hingga 6.88; p<0.001).
 Conclusion: Strong family support and high levels of family income reduce the risk of postpartum depression. Meanwhile, domestic violence increases the risk of postpartum depression.
 Keywords: Postpartum Depression, Family suport, Family income, Domestic violence.
 Correspondence: Noris Hadi Sri Mulyani. Masters Program in Public Health, Universitas Sebelas Maret. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A, Surakarta 57126, Central Java, Indonesia. Email: hadinoris@gmail.com. Mobile: 08157996639

Association of socioeconomic factors and dietary intake with sarcopenic obesity in the Korean older population.

This study investigated the relationship between socioeconomic factors, dietary intake, and sarcopenic obesity among older adults in Korea. Data from the seventh Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2016-2018) were analyzed. The study included 3,690 participants (1,645 men and 2,045 women) aged 65 years and older. Sarcopenic obesity was defined as the coexistence of low muscle strength (handgrip strength <28 kg in men and <18 kg in women) and abdominal obesity (waist circumference >90 cm in men and >85 cm in women). Socioeconomic factors assessed included age, living status, residential area, employment, education, and family income level. Dietary intake was evaluated using the nutrient adequacy ratio and mean adequacy ratio derived from 24-h dietary recall data. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with sarcopenic obesity. The prevalence rates of sarcopenic obesity were 6.5% in men and 17.4% in women. Low education levels were significantly associated with a higher prevalence of sarcopenic obesity in women, whereas lower family income levels were associated with an increased risk of sarcopenic obesity in men. In women, a lower mean adequacy ratio was significantly associated with a higher risk of sarcopenic obesity. Lower family income and education level are associated with a higher prevalence of sarcopenic obesity. Ad-ditionally, overall nutritional adequacy is inversely related to the prevalence of sarcopenic obesity, particularly in women.

Body Mass Index Trajectories among the Healthy Communities Study Children: Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Disparities in Childhood Obesity.

The purpose of this study is to identify statistically distinguishable trajectories of childhood body mass index (BMI), an important indicator of developmental status of children, and to provide a summary description of demographic characteristics of children based on these distinctive trajectories. Using data from the Healthy Communities Study (HCS), a large longitudinal dataset with oversamples of Hispanic and Black children across 130 communities in the USA, a group-based trajectory analysis approach was used to estimate trajectories of children based on their BMI-z scores. The three most distinguishable BMI trajectory groups identified for the HCS children show no marked increase or decrease in standardized BMI over an age range of 2 to 11. Approximately 28.5% of children were in a trajectory group with consistently obese BMI-z scores for their sex and age. The patterns of BMI trajectory groups identified for boys and girls are similar, but BMI-z scores for boys tend to be slightly higher than those for girls. These BMI trajectories are characterized by racial/ethnic and socioeconomic status disparities. Hispanic and Black children were more likely to be in the obese trajectory group than White children. Children with parents having less education, or children from low family income level, were more likely to be in the obese trajectory group than counterpart children. The findings suggest that BMI disparities exist from the early years of childhood and persist across childhood, with higher BMI associated with Black and Hispanic children as well as those from low socioeconomic status backgrounds.

Anxiety and depressive symptomatology among children and adolescents exposed to the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review

Background/Aim. Children and adolescents are sensitive groups for the development of mental disorders during the crisis. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on anxiety and depressive symptomatology in the population of children and adolescents. Methods. The investigation was based on a systematic review followed by PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) protocol, including Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, Global Health, and APA Psyc Info databases, to identify relevant studies reporting anxiety and depressive symptoms among children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 27 articles were included. Results. Anxiety symptoms increased from 28.3% before the pandemic to 49.5% during confinement [General Anxiety Disorder (GAD)-7 ? 11)] (McNemar test, p &lt; 0.0001). More depressive symptomatology was found, as well as weight and sleep disturbances which are the characteristics of children and adolescents? mental health. Additionally, female teenagers were experiencing grater declines in mood disorders than male teenagers during the COVID-19 crisis. On the one hand, different positive correlations between anxiety and other variables, were found, such as clinical depressive symptoms and anxiety (3/14), smartphone and internet addiction (2/14), lower levels of family income (2/14), perceived threats (2/14), higher grades at school (2/14), and loneliness (1/14). On the other hand, positive correlations were reported between depression and children and adolescents that were socially disconnected (3/17). Finally, mothers with higher level of education and income were associated with higher level of happiness (2/17). Conclusion. COVID-19 has a strong impact on the mental health of children and adolescents regarding depression and anxiety symptoms. Prevention programs focused on coping strategies should be conducted in elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools. Mental health should become a priority matter for governments, and the current pandemic could be an opportunity to highlight the importance of mental well-being and to invest in the betterment of clinical trainings, treatments and mental health research.

631 Accuracy of patient self-report for indication for primary cesarean

Obstetric and clinical factors have been associated with the likelihood of VBAC. Counseling in a subsequent pregnancy may rely on self-report if records are not available. We sought to determine the accuracy of patient self-reported history and identify factors associated with incorrect reporting. This was a secondary analysis of the previously published PROCEED trial, a multi-centered randomized controlled trial of the impact of a patient centered decision app on rates of TOLAC. Women randomized to the intervention arm entered their histories into the app to allow for calculation of the likelihood of VBAC based on the NICHD VBAC calculator. The accuracy of patient self-report was assessed, and clinical and sociodemographic factors associated with a discrepancy between patient report and chart review (considered the gold standard) were identified. Among the 720 women for whom self-report data were available, 85.4% accurately reported the indication for their primary CD. Among the 105 women with a mismatch between their self-report and the chart abstraction data regarding indication for CD, 51 did not recall their prior arrest disorder and 54 reported their indication for CD was arrest when it was not. Prior CD in labor was associated with higher likelihood of inaccurate self-report, as was lower family income level; time since delivery was not associated with inaccuracy, nor was any other sociodemographic or clinical characteristics (Table 1). The majority of women accurately reported their indication for primary CD during a subsequent pregnancy. However, among those with inaccurate reports, it was equally common for women to either incorrectly report or not report an arrest indication. Optimizing communication regarding the clinical findings at the time of initial CD for all populations may help to improve patient-centered, evidence-based counseling in subsequent pregnancies.

İlkokul 4. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Okul Kantinini Bilinçli Kullanma Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi

This research was conducted to determine the levels of conscious use of school canteens by the 4th grade primary school students. For the validity and reliability, scale was applied for 231 primary school 4th grade students. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was used for construct validity according to the data obtained from this application. The Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of .70, which is 16 items, explains 42.14% of the variance. Using School Canteen Consciously Scale (USCCS), which consists of subdimensions such as “quality”, “responsibility” and “need”. After the pre-implementation, the scale was applied to 1071 elementary school students in 4 primary schools, 513 (48%) girls and 558 (52%) boys. As a result of the research, it was found that 4th grade primary school students did not consciously use the school canteen at the desired level and it differentiated significantly in favor of women at the level of using school canteen consciously in terms of gender of students, those studying at private schools in terms of the quality of type of school, and those who always go to school after having breakfast at home in terms of whether they go to school by having breakfast before school or not. It differs to a great extent against the students with low levels of family income in terms of quality, liability and scale according to their family income levels; according to the situation of getting money from their families, quality, responsibility, level of the needs and in terms of the total scale it differs in favor of the students who take weekly allowances.

Prevalence of diagnosed type 1 and type 2 diabetes among US adults in 2016 and 2017: population based study

ObjectiveTo estimate the prevalence of diagnosed total diabetes, type 1 diabetes, and type 2 diabetes in the US general population and the proportions of each among US adults with a...

Epidemiological characteristics of waist circumference and abdominal obesity among Chinese children and adolescents aged 6-17 years

Objective: To analyze the epidemiological characteristics of waist circumference and abdominal obesity among Chinese children and adolescents aged 6-17 years. Methods: Data was from the samples of aged 6-17 years in the China National Nutrition and Health Surveillance program in 2010-2012. P(90) (the same age, the same sex) was used as the diagnostic value for abdominal obesity. Results: The overall waist circumference of children and adolescents in all the age groups appeared higher in males than that in females (P<0.000 1), higher in cities than that in the rural areas (P<0.05), and higher in children with high family income than those with middle or low family incomes (P=0.000 3). The rate of abdominal obesity in children and adolescents aged 6-17 years appeared as 11.2% on average and 10.7% and 11.8% for boys and girls, respectively but with no significant difference (P>0.05). Rates on abdominal obesity appeared as 13.2% and 8.5% for boys while as 12.3% and 11.2% for girls respectively, in urban or rural areas. As for the levels of family income, the abdominal obesity rates appeared as 15.8%, 11.5% and 8.8% respectively for boys while 13.5%, 11.9% and 11.6% respectively for girls, under high, middle and low levels of family income. Conclusion: The rate of abdominal obesity in boys seemed more responsive to the impact of income in urban or rural areas.

Pengaruh Aktivitas Seksual Pranikah, Ketaatan Beragama dan Sosial Ekonomi terhadap Kehamilan Remaja di Kecamatan Saptosari Gunungkidul

Teenage pregnancies still prevalent in rural areas with a low levels of family income. Teenage pregnancy may cause maternal mortality and infant mortality. This study was conducted to analyze the risk factors of teenage pregnancy in the District Saptosari Gunungkidul. This research used analytical observational study with case control design. Data was collected by interview with 46 teenagers, consisted of 23 pregnant teenagers and 23 nonpregnant teenagers in Saptosari Gunungkidul. The samples were taken by simple random sampling method and interviews were conducted with respondents to get the information about the variables studied. The independent variable were premarital sexual activity, religious obedience and social economic. Dependen variable in this study was teenage pregnancy. Data was analyzed using binary logistic regression ( α 0.05 ). The result showed that there was influence of religious obedience on teenage pregnancy. Teenage with low religious obedience had high risk to have teenage pregnancy than those with high level of religious obedience with OR 57,8. Teenage with low social economic had high risk to have teenage pregnancy than those with high social economic (OR: 63,9). The conclusion of this research is risk factors which infl uence the occurrent off teenage pregnancy are religious obedience and social economic.

Factors associated with adherence to asthma treatment with inhaled corticosteroids: A cross-sectional exploratory study

ABSTRACTBackground: Understanding factors at the patient, provider or organizational level associated with inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) adherence is important when planning adherence-enhancing interventions. Objective: To explore factors associated with adherence to ICS among patients with asthma aged 12–45 years. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among patients with asthma reporting ICS prescription during the baseline interview of an intervention study. Three methods were used to measure ICS adherence: a 4-item self-report questionnaire, a single question (SQ) measuring past 7-day exposure to ICS and a medication possession ratio (MPR, i.e., the sum of ICS days of supply/365). We assessed 46 potential factors of ICS adherence derived from the Predisposing, Reinforcing and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation (PRECEDE) model. Their association with ICS adherence was measured using multivariate logistic regressions. Results: Among the 319 participants included, 16.0% were deemed adherent according to the 4-item questionnaire. This proportion was 43.0% and 9.1% for the SQ and the MPR method, respectively. Ten factors were associated with good ICS adherence. Among these factors, four were associated with adherence through one of the measuring methods: a low family income level, a high number of asthma drugs used, a good knowledge of asthma pathophysiology and the perception that following the ICS prescription was easy. Two factors emerged through more than one measure: perceiving asthma severity as moderate to very severe and perceiving a high risk of death if ICSs are not taken as prescribed. Conclusion: ICS adherence was poor in those individuals with asthma. Future adherence-enhancing interventions could target the identified modifiable risk factors.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT02093013

Evaluation of Patients with Cleft Lip and Palate in Southeastern Anatolian Region.

Our study included patients with cleft lip and palate who applied to Gaziantep University Dentistry Faculty Orthodontics Department between 2010 and 2014. The aim of this study was to reveal the characteristics of these patients with demographic values. In total, 118 patients were included in this study. The patients were pursued by phone calls, and the study was conducted with only 64 patients. The demographic map was created with a statistical expert as a questionnaire. It was thought that the reason for not being able to include the remaining 54 patients was a change in phone number, designation, or others. One patient who was to be interviewed died because of heart failure. The results revealed that the place of birth of 18.75% patients was a metropolitan region that of 54.68% was a province, that of 21.87% was a district, and that of 4.69% was a village. The majority of patients (93.25%) had a low family income level. The average number of children was 3.28, and readership was 1.47. The rate of working mothers was 1.56%. It was concluded that the cleft lip and palate patient group had lower economic and sociocultural levels. For this purpose, raising awareness of parents and providing financial support to families are required because of the long-term treatment process. It was thought that the long-term treatment process of these patients in a single-unit authority with the guidance of universities would be appropriate for better patient follow-up and inventory. Otherwise, as seen in this study, contact cannot be established after a while and some problems can arise with regard to follow-up. Lack of communication can lead to the formation of more difficult patients with growth and development.

Predictors of needs for community and financial resources for families of pre-school children with cerebral palsy

An understanding of predictors of family needs for the families of preschool children with cerebral palsy (CP) is important for provision of efficient and cost-effective services. The aim of this study was to identify the characteristics of children, families and services that are risk factors to meeting family needs for community and financial resources. 234 parents of pre-school children with CP completed a modified version of the Family Needs Survey (FNS), the Measure of Processes of Care (MPOC-20), and a demographic questionnaire. The gross motor function level and communication function level of children were classified on the basis of the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) and the Communication Function Classification System (CFCS) respectively. Two hierarchical multiple regression models were generated to determine the predictors of unmet family needs. The socialisation and communication skills of children, as well as caregiver employment and family income levels were significant predictors of family needs for community resources (adjusted R2=0.44). Significant risk factors in terms of family needs for financial resources included the child's gross motor limitations, caregiver employment, low levels of family income and no ability to receive services on the basis of enabling and partnership principles (adjusted R2=0.51). A child's limitations in terms of communication, gross motor functions and socialisation, as well as the socioeconomic status of the child's family, must be taken into account when planning services for families with preschool children with CP.

Intimate partner violence against women in Spain: A medico-legal and criminological study

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a significant worldwide problem whose magnitude and risk factors vary across different settings and cultures. Nowadays, it is a priority to improve the knowledge on this issue in order to formulate better evidence-based policy responses. This study aims to contribute to a better understanding of non-fatal IPV against women in Spain. A retrospective analysis of IPV cases with a final judicial decision was carried out. The period under study extended from January 2005 to December 2012, with a total of 582 files included in the investigation. Most IPV victims were young adult women of Spanish origin, either married or single, with children, unemployed and with a low family income level. The majority of alleged perpetrators were young adults, employed, with a middle-low income level, a history of alcohol consumption/abuse, but no criminal records. Most victims had previous history of IPV, were engaged in a long-term relationship with their abuser and lived with him at the time of assault. The combination of psychological and physical abuse was the most frequent form of violence. The most common mechanisms of assault consisted in minor acts of physical violence, which resulted in mild injuries, most of them in the upper limbs and face. Nearly half of women sought medical care, but physician's injury report was only made in about a quarter of these cases, even though it is mandatory for health professionals. The majority of criminal proceedings were initiated by the victim's report and ended in conviction, most of them being considered occasional mistreatment. This study confirms the heterogeneity of the phenomenon of intimate partner violence. The importance of adopting standard IPV concepts and promoting the recognition and assessment of this form of violence amongst health care professionals, criminal investigators and forensic personnel is emphasized.

Focusing on Family: Parent–Child Relationships and School Readiness among Economically Impoverished Black Children

As a result of financial strain, low-income families often face challenges in areas of parental stress (McConnell, Breitkreuz, & Savage, 2011) and quality of parent-child interactions (Lempers & Clark-Lempers, 1997), which can be overwhelming for many parents and their children. Accordingly, low-income children's academic and behavioral performance has been linked to both parental stress and subsequent parent-child relationships (Clark-Lempers, Lempers, & Netusil, 1990). But while early academic parenting behaviors are critical in determining academic readiness for Black and low-income families (Hill, 2001), less is known about how family determinants such as parent-child relationship may help to explain link between financial stressors and children's school readiness. Furthermore, despite an earlier body of work, little progress has been made in past several decades to examine parent-child relationships in Black families generally, not to mention economically impoverished Black families.This study examines financial strain, general strain, parent-child relationships, and child school readiness (e.g., academic, psychosocial, and socioemotional indicators) among impoverished Black families. Although Black families may have varying degrees of control over societal factors associated with financial and daily hassles in their lives, less-understood aspects of home environment-in particular, relationship between parent and child-can shed light on ways that families can contribute to their children's readiness for school.ECONOMIC POVERTY AND BLACK CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENTThere is a large body of work that links socioeconomic status to child outcomes (e.g., Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). In particular, living in or with low levels of family income has been associated with a number of negative outcomes for children (Pinderhughes et al., 2001). The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines as the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions (from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poverty). In 2015, United States Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. DHHS) set threshold of for a family of two adults and two children at an annual income of less than $24,250 (Federal level: Definition, guidelines, chart, 2015). Low-income families, furthermore, are those who earn 100% to200% of threshold, or up to $48,500 for a family of four in 2015 (National Center for Children in Poverty; NCCP, 2012). Children comprise 44% of low-income and 34% of impoverished population in United States (U.S.) despite comprising only 25% of total population (NCCP, 2012). In particular, children six years of age and under may be especially vulnerable, with almost one-half living in low-income families and one-quarter living in impoverished families (NCCP, 2012: Although there are distinctions between terms and low-income within literature, NCCP illuminates vast underestimation of based on today's standards, therefore, term poverty in this article may include references to those who are 0-200% of federal threshold, that is, impoverished and low-income). The effects of are evident in early indicators of children's school readiness (e.g., preschool vocabulary; Duncan, Ludwig, & Magnuson, 2007), often leading to greater disparities in developmental outcomes and trajectories over time. The deleterious effects of on young children have been reflected in academic (Joe & Davis, 2009), psychosocial (Evans & English, 2002) and socioemotional (Bierman et al., 2010) outcomes.Furthermore, rates of American often vary with race. The percentage of Black families in has climbed as they experienced effects of recent economic downturn disproportionately (e.g., greater unemployment). Black children are also more likely to live in than their non-Black peers, with 39% of all Black children living in compared to 34% of Latino or 14% of Asian and White children respectively (U. …

Diverse Family Types and Out‐of‐School Learning Time of Young School‐Age Children

=Sources of differentials in out-of-school learning time between children in first marriage biological parent families and children in six nontraditional family types are identified. Analyses of time diaries reveal that children in four of the six nontraditional family types spend fewer minutes learning than do children in first marriage biological parent families. In all four cases, however, the differentials are explained by the presence of siblings age 18+, lower levels of family income, or younger maternal age.

Implementation of Triple P‐Positive Parenting Program in Hong Kong: predictors of programme completion and clinical outcomes

This study examined the effectiveness of the Triple P‐Positive Parenting Program in a government child health service delivery context with Chinese parents in Hong Kong. Specifically, the study sought to identify pre‐intervention variables that might predict programme outcomes such as level of clinical improvement and programme completion. Participants were 661 parents of pre‐school and primary aged children participating in a group version of the Triple P‐Positive Parenting Program. There were significant decreases in disruptive child behaviours, levels of parenting stress, general stress and anxiety and an increase in parenting sense of competence. Greater change in reports of child behaviour problems was related to lower levels of family income, new immigrant family status, and higher pre‐intervention levels of parenting stress. The present study provides a profile of parents who are most likely to benefit from parent training programmes.

Sociodemographic factors associated with comorbid major depressive episodes and alcohol dependence in the general population.

To estimate the 12-month prevalence of alcohol dependence (AD) among subjects with major depressive episodes (MDEs) and the 12-month prevalence of MDEs among those with AD; to investigate the associations between demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and comorbid MDE and AD, based on established theoretical models; and to compare the rates of mental health service use between groups having high and low risk for comorbid conditions. We used data from the 1996-1997 Canadian National Population Health Survey. MDE and AD were measured using the World Health Organization's Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short Form (CIDI-SF). We calculated the 12-month prevalence of MDEs among participants with AD and of AD among those with MDEs. The associations between demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and comorbidity were investigated. Of participants with MDEs, 8.6% had AD; 19.6% of participants with AD reported having at least 1 MDE in the past 12 months. Being young (aged 12 to 24 years); being divorced, separated, or widowed; and having low family income level were positively associated with MDE, AD, and comorbidity. Among participants with comorbid MDE and AD, those who were aged 12 to 24 years were less likely to have used any mental health services in the past 12 months than were others. Young age, single marital status, and low family income may be potential risk factors for comorbid MDE and AD. Although AD is rare in the general population, public health interventions that target the groups identified as at risk may help to prevent MDE, AD, and comorbidity.

Attitudes toward Women: Some Biographical Correlates

382 university students completed a questionnaire concerning attitudes toward the role of women in society. Less traditional attitudes were expressed by individuals who: (1) were females, (2) had more years of college education, (3) were not close to their fathers, (4) had mothers who worked because they wanted to, and (5) had lower levels of family income.