Low Base Status Research Articles

Geospatial Status of Available Potassium and Sulphur in Low Base Status Soils

Aim: This study aims to analyse the required parameters to determine the availability of potassium and sulphur in red soils representing low base status soils of Sivagangai block of Sivagangai district, Tamil Nadu.
 Study Design: Survey.
 Place and Duration of Study: Survey was conducted at Sivagangai block of Sivagangai district, representing the red soils of Tamil Nadu during the winter season of 2021.
 Methodology: Geo-referenced surface soil samples representing one hundred red soils were collected from the plough layer (0 to 30 cm depth) at an estimated frequency of 1 km grid over the red soils of Sivaganga block in Tamil Nadu's Sivagangai district using a handheld global positioning system (GPS). The collected samples were processed and analysed for the necessary parameters and based on that data thematic maps were created by kriging the fertility status and then exhibiting the relevant legends.
 Result: The physico chemical properties of soils indicated that soils were strongly acidic to acidic in soil reaction, non - saline and low in organic carbon content. The available potassium content of the Sivagangai block ranged from 101 kg ha-1 to 260.5 kg ha-1 with a mean value of 179.4 kg ha-1. When categorised 26 per cent of samples were found low in available potassium content and the remaining 74 per cent of samples were medium. Soil available sulphur status in this block ranged from 3.10 mg kg-1 to 18.20 mg kg-1 with a mean value of 10.65 mg kg-1 indicating that 59 per cent of soil samples were found low in available sulphur status, 39 per cent of soil samples were medium status and 2 per cent of soil samples were under high status.
 Conclusion: Using the geocoordinates, thematic maps for all the parameters were prepared, which indicated that the major area of the block was acidic in soil reaction, non-saline, low in organic carbon, low in free calcium carbonate, low to medium in available potassium and low in available sulphur. These maps will be useful in constructing homogenous units and assist farmers in determining the quantity and kind of potassium and sulphur fertiliser to be applied in order to optimize economic returns based on site-specific nutrient management.

Long-term decline of sugar maple following forest harvest, Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire

Forest harvesting can impact site quality by removing essential nutrients, exacerbating the effects of historic base cation losses associated with acid deposition. We studied the 30-year trajectory of forest recovery from clearcutting (whole-tree harvest (WTH)) in a forest originally dominated by sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.). At both the watershed scale (21.9 ha) and the “detailed” plot scale (1 m2), a dramatic decline of sugar maple was observed, along with maintenance of American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) and an increase in birch, mainly yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britt.). Many of the “detailed” plots where sugar maple failed to recruit became unoccupied rather than being “won” by another species. The decline of sugar maple was most severe in the upper elevation zones of the watershed, where low base status (especially Ca) of the soils was a likely driver. The results support previous studies indicating that regeneration by sugar maple is severely compromised on base cation depleted soils. Lower survival of seedlings for sugar maple emphasized the importance of maintaining advance regeneration to favor desired species such as sugar maple. Foresters should consider that sites with low base saturation and exchangeable Ca are likely to exhibit regeneration failure for sugar maple in the long term, even those with initial dominance by this species.

Pedological Data from The Ciceu–Năsăud Hills Area, Northern Romania

The Ciceu–Năsăud Hills represent the northeastern branch of a larger physiographic unit called the Someş Tableland located in the northern part of Romania. The soil cover of this area consists mainly of Luvisols and Alisols (Udalfs) and Cambisols (Udepts) developed on eluvial–colluvial parent materials derived from Oligocene sandstones and conglomerates. The principal environmental features of these soils are their advanced acidity and low base status, partly inherited from the parent material but also accentuated by the dominant pedogenetic processes (lessivage and/or base depletion). The pedo-environment provided by the present day soil cover is well preserved in the Năsăud Hills, where land cover consists of forests and grasslands, while in the Ciceu Hills it is damaged by soil erosion and landslides as a consequence of the dominant arable land use and advanced deforestation.

Soil genesis and classification

Authors vii Preface to the First Edition ix Preface to the Second Edition x Preface to the Third Edition xi Preface to the Fourth Edition xiii Preface to the Fifth Edition xiv Preface to the Sixth Edition xv 1. Introduction 3 2. Morphology and Composition of Soils 35 3. Soil-forming Factors: Soil as a Component of Ecosystems 89 4. Soil Materials and Weathering 141 5. Soil-forming Processes 163 6. Modern Soil Classification Systems 181 7. U.S. Soil Taxonomy 207 8. Alfisols: High Base Status Soils with Finer-textured Subsoil Horizons 233 9. Andisols: Soils with Andic Soil Properties 249 10. Aridisols: Soils of Dry Regions 265 11. Entisols: Recently Formed Soils 283 12. Gelisols: Very Cold Soils 293 13. Histosols: Organic Soils 307 14. Inceptisols: Embryonic Soils with Few Diagnostic Features 321 15. Mollisols: Grassland Soils of Steppes and Prairies 331 16. Oxisols: Low Activity Soils 349 17. Spodosols: Soils with Subsoil Accumulations of Humus and Sesquioxides 361 18. Ultisols: Low Base Status Soils with Finer-textured Subsoil Horizons 375 19. Vertisols: Shrinking and Swelling Dark Clay Soils 385 20. Spatial Arrangement of Soils: Soilscapes and Map Units 397 21. Interpretations of Soil Surveys and Technical Soil Classification 425 Bibliography 437 Index 531 Color plate section located between pages 232 and 233

Element fluxes through European forest ecosystems and their relationships with stand and site characteristics

This paper describes a European wide assessment of element budgets, using available data on deposition, meteorology and soil solution chemistry at 121 Intensive Monitoring plots. Input fluxes from the atmosphere were derived from fortnightly or monthly measurements of bulk deposition and throughfall, corrected for canopy uptake. Element outputs from the forest ecosystem were derived by multiplying fortnightly or monthly measurements of the soil solution composition at the bottom of the root zone with simulated unsaturated soil water fluxes. Despite the uncertainties in the calculated budgets, the results indicate that: (i) SO 4 is still the dominant source of actual soil acidification despite the generally lower input of S than N, due to the different behaviour of S (near tracer) and N (strong retention); (ii) base cation removal due to man-induced soil acidification is limited; and (iii) Al release is high in areas with high S inputs and low base status.

The relative importance of pedogenic processes in deep sandy regolith in Western Australia

There have been no detailed pedological studies on the extensive tract of sandy regolith that characterises the geomorphology of the Victoria Plateau, Western Australia. We report the results of physical and chemical analyses of 15 Arenosols from the plateau. Three classes of earthy sand profiles are recognised on the basis of the distribution of sand and clay down the profiles. All are dominated by quartz with a very low heavy mineral fraction. Low to very low levels of exchangeable cations and sesquioxides accord with the dominance of siliceous sand and kaolinite as the only clay mineral present. The high sand content, acidic upper profile and low base status of most of the profiles favour leaching as a soil forming process. Concentration of mobile constituents such as Na, Mg and Ca are generally higher at depth, particularly when associated with clay-rich sections. However pedogenic alteration in the profiles is limited and the chemical and physical variation that does occur is more likely to be related to variability of the substrate than leaching. Minor amounts of organic matter are incorporated to shallow depth but there is no evidence of bleaching within the profiles. Indications of leaching, in general do not occur. While some profiles do have higher clay content at the base than closer to the surface, this is not invariable and there is a lack of consistent down-profile increase in Feox, Alox, Fep and Alp. The location of these profiles in a low rainfall area which has been in this situation for at least hundreds of thousands of years, the low productivity of the covering vegetation and rapid oxidation of any organic material derived from litter means that conditions conducive to leaching very rarely occur. This has led to a situation where, unlike much younger sand sequences in the more mesic south of Western Australia, there is little evidence of soil profile development, such as podsolization, in the earthy sands of the Victoria Plateau.

Base cation leaching from the canopy of a subtropical rainforest in northeastern Taiwan

We examined base cation leaching from the canopy of a subtropical rainforest in northeastern Taiwan. The forest is characterized by extremely low levels of base cations in both canopy vegetation and in the soils. The rates of canopy leaching of K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ were very high, representing up to 30, 35, and 190%, respectively, of the amount stored in leaves. The rate of H+ retention in the canopy was close to the rate of base cation leaching, suggesting that cation leaching is neutralizing acid precipitation. The subtropical forest studied leached cations from the canopy throughout the year, unlike temperate deciduous forests, which are physiologically inert in the winter. The forest canopy of the subtropical forest we studied is impacted by acid deposition and fog throughout the winter because of frequent rainfall and high relative humidity. This continuous exposure to acid precipitation could cause more intense negative effects on the canopy of subtropical forests as compared with temperate forests exposed to similar pollution loads. We suggest that the low base status of subtropical forests growing on low base status soils may make them very vulnerable to the negative effects of air pollution.

The steppes of Tierra del Fuego: floristic and growthform patterns controlled by soil fertility and moisture

Northern Tierra del Fuego is the insular extreme of the Magellanic steppe, a unique example of a cold-temperate oceanic grassland in South America. We surveyed this poorly known region with a landscape-based procedure to classify plant communities and investigate environmental gradients. Sampling sites were selected with the aid of aerial photos, and floristic composition, soil, topography and landform type were recorded in each site. Classification was achieved with Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis and gradients were analyzed with Detrended Canonical Correspondence Analysis. Two broad groups of communities were separated by the presence of typical acidophilous dwarf shrubs: acidophilous/mesotrophic and neutrophilous vegetation. Along the main floristic gradient, ericoid dwarf shrubs were replaced by forbs and grasses as soil acidity decreased. The acidic habitats were on Pleistocene glacial and alluvial deposits, and had coarse texture, poorly decomposed organic matter, and low base status. The eutrophic habitats were on Tertiary rocks of medium to fine texture and had well-decomposed organic matter and high base status. A second axis of variation was associated to latitudinal position and slope aspect, revealing a precipitation/evaporation gradient. Scrubs dominated by midheight shrubs, with species from the southern forests, were at the humid extreme (higher latitudes/south aspects); and short grass steppes, with taxa commonly found further North in the continent, at the xeric end (lower latitudes/north aspects). Although fertility and moisture seem to control the overall floristic gradient, the extreme vegetation types of the fertility gradient, both having a very simple structure, could be attributed to grazing disturbance. Floristics and ecology of the Fuegian steppe resemble to a certain degree some boreal oceanic systems.

Ecosystem fertility and fallow function in the humid and subhumid tropics

The regeneration of natural vegetation (fallowing) is a traditional practice for restoring fertility of agricultural land in many parts in the tropics. As a result of increasing human population and insufficient fertilizer inputs, the ecosystem fertility functions of traditional fallows must now be improved upon via the use of managed fallows. Interactions between vegetation and soil determine nutrient losses and gains in crop—fallow systems and are influenced by fallow species, patterns and rates of biomass allocation, and crop and fallow management. Nutrient losses occur through offtake in crop harvests during the cropping phase and through leaching, runoff, and erosion in the cropping phase and the initial stage of fallows $#x2014; when nutrient availability exceeds nutrient demand by vegetation. Gains in nutrient stocks in later stages of fallow are generally more rapid on soils with high than low base status due to greater quantities of weatherable minerals and lack of constraints to N2 fixation, deep rooting, and retrieval of subsoil nutrients by fallow vegetation. On low base status soils (exchangeable Ca 5 yr) are needed for recovery of cation stocks and crop performance on low base status soils. On both soils, however, residual benefits of fallows on crop yields usually last less than three crops.

A two-layer application of the MAGIC model to predict the effects of land use scenarios and reductions in deposition on acid sensitive soils in the UK

Abstract. A two-layer application of the catchment-based soil and surface water acidification model, MAGIC, was applied to 21 sites in the UK Acid Waters Monitoring Network (AWAMN), and the results were compared with those from a one-layer application of the model. The two-layer model represented typical soil properties more accurately by segregating the organic and mineral horizons into two separate soil compartments. Reductions in sulphur (S) emissions associated with the Second S Protocol and different forestry (land use) scenarios were modelled, and their effects on soil acidification evaluated. Soil acidification was assessed in terms of base saturation and critical loads for the molar ratio of base cations (CA2+ + MG 2+ + K+) to aluminium (Al) in soil solution. The results of the two-layer application indicate that base saturation of the organic compartment was very responsive to changes in land use and deposition compared with the mineral soil. With the two- layer model, the organic soil compartment was particularly sensitive to acid deposition, which resulted in the critical load being predicted to be exceeded at eight sites in 1997 and two sites in 2010. These results indicate that further reductions in S deposition are necessary to raise the base cation (BC):Al ratio above the threshold which is harmful to tree roots. At forested sites BC:Al ratios were generally well below the threshold designated for soil critical loads in Europe and forecasts indicate that forest replanting can adversely affect the acid status of sensitive term objectives of protecting and sustaining soil and water quality. Policy formulation must seek to protect the most sensitive environmental receptor, in this case organic soils. It is clear, therefore, that simply securing protection of surface waters, via the critical loads approach, may not ensure adequate protection of low base status organic soils from the effects of acidification.

PROPERTIES AND RELATED MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF MAJOR SOILS IN BUKIDNON, PHILIPPINES

In this study, the soils on the steeplands of Sabacan, Himaya, and San Jose, and on the uplands and alluvial areas of Musuan, were mapped, characterized morphologically and chemically, and classified based on the USDA Soil Taxonomy. The mineralogy of the various soil horizons has been determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy SEM, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The soils in the steepland and upland areas are classified as Typic Hapladalfs and Lithic Dystropepts. The floodplain is occupied by Typic Tropaquepts. The pH of the Ap horizons is moderately acid in Typic Hapludalfs and Typic Dystropepts and strongly acid in Typic Tropaquepts. The apparent cation exchange capacity is very high in these soils, characterized by low contents of organic carbon and total nitrogen, a very low available phosphorus and low base status. XRD analysis showed that gibbsite, quartz, halloysite and hydroxy interlayered 2:1 minerals are present in the clay fraction of all soils. TEM showed goethite as acicular crystals extending into pores like needles and lepidocrocite as highly elongated flakes found abundant in the sub-soils ofTypic Tropaquepts. Typic Hapludalfs are deep, well-drained soils suitable for upland cultivation. Use of light implements would help minimize soil compaction during land preparation, and contour plowing would alleviate soil erosion hazards on these soils. The coarse-textured Lithic Dystropepts, which have a coherent underlying hard rock material at 50 cm of the mineral surface, would require proper drainage. A clayey texture and a massive structure with redoximorphic conditions pose aeration problems in the Typic Tropaquepts. These soils could best be utilized for lowland rice cultivation.

The distribution of sweetveld and sourveld in South Africa's grassland biome in relation to environmental factors

Abstract The distribution of sweet‐ and sourveld in relation to climate, parent material and soil nutrients has been examined in South Africa's grassland biome. Sourveld occurs in areas with high water supply and where parent material gives rise to soils with a low base status. Sweetveld occurs in areas with low water supply and where parent material gives rise to soils with a high base status. The distribution of sweet‐ and sourveld does not seem to be determined by base status itself, but by the concentration of available phosphorus and the size of the readily mineralizable nitrogen pool in the soil. The difference between the temperatures in the growth (wet) and no‐growth (dry) seasons also appears important, but the relation is not clear. We propose that aspects of the environment which promote carbon assimilation (water supply and temperature) in relation to nutrient supply (soil fertility, water supply and temperature) determine the forage quality of grassland vegetation. Sourveld occurs where carbo...

Changes in soil pH and exchangeable base cations during moist soil storage

Maintaining samples of four moorland soils of low base status from a podzol profile in a field-moist state prior to analysis is shown to result in significant changes in exchangeable cation concentrations, cation exchange capacity and pH within one month, and often larger changes on more prolonged storage. The magnitude of change depends upon the soil horizon and the determination concerned. Changes may be explained in terms of disruption of natural element biogeochemical cycling. The results suggest that in regional surveys, sample preparation and analysis must be completed within a few days of collection.

Response of eleven forage species to treatment of acid soil with calcitic and dolomitic lime

Abstract The cost and difficulty of applying lime on hilly pastures or small forage fields makes it appropriate to devote attention to efficiency of lime utilization. This study evaluated effects of calcitic and dolomitic lime on yield and mineral composition of 11 forage species grown on soil with a low base status of 0.46 cmolc as Ca and 0.18 cmolc as Mg kg‐1. Both lime types increased dry matter production, but only Lolium multiflorum responded more positively to dolomitic lime. The low Mg level in the soil was not a major factor limiting yield. Increase in yield was mainly attributed to the increase in pH with the concurrent decrease in Al level and to an increased Ca availability to plants. The species ranked as follows according to the magnitude of yield increase due to calcitic liming: Trifolium fragiferum > Trifolium pratense > Vicia sativa > Vicia villosa > Trifolium repens > Lolium perenne > Lolium multiflorum > Festuca arundinaceae = Lolium (multiflorum x perenne x perenne) > Trifolium subterra...

Chemical composition of soil solutions extracted from New Zealand beech forests and West German beech and spruce forests

Concentrations of ions were measured in soil solutions from beech (Nothofagus) forests in remote areas of New Zealand and in solutions from beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) forests in North-East Bavaria, West Germany, to compare the chemistry of soil solutions which are unaffected by acid deposition (New Zealand) with those that are affected (West Germany). In New Zealand, soil solution SO4 2− concentrations ranged between <2 and 58 μmol L−1, and NO3 − concentrations ranged between <1 and 3 μmol L−1. In West Germany, SO4 2− concentrations ranged between 80 and 700 μmol L−1, and NO3 − concentrations at three of six sites ranged between 39 and 3750 μmol L−1, but was not detected at the remaining three sites. At all sites in New Zealand, and at sites where the soil base status was moderately high in West Germany, pH levels increased, and total Al (Alt) and inorganic monomeric Al (Ali) levels decreased rapidly with increasing soil depth. In contrast, at sites on soils of low base status in West Germany, pH levels increased only slightly, and Al levels did not decline with increasing soil depth. Under a high-elevation Norway spruce stand showing severe Mg deficiency and dieback symptoms in West Germany, soil solution Mg2+ levels ranged between 20 and 60 μmol L−, and were only half those under a healthy stand. Alt and Ali levels were substantially higher the healthy stand than under the unhealthy stand, indicating that Al toxicity was not the main cause of spruce decline.

INFLUENCE OF UNDERLYING MATERIAL ON THE WEATHERING OF LOESS IN OHIO

The influence of chemical and textural discontinuities on soil development has not been well documented. In this study, weathering and clay accumulation in a thin (43 to 66 cm), Late Wisconsinan loess mantle underlain by different materials (dolomite, siltstone, sandstone, and shale residua; Illinoian and Wisconsinan glacial tills) were assessed in six pedons from southcentral Ohio. Lithological and micro-morphological evidence suggested that mixing of underlying materials with the loess was limited to the basal portion of the mantle. Chemical analyses indicated greater weathering of loess deposited over low base status or clayey materials relative to that deposited over those with high base status or loamy textures. Particle size and micromorphological and reconstructional analyses also indicated greater pedogenic clay accumulation in loess deposited over clayey materials. Apparently, the presence of acidic materials beneath the initially calcareous loess accelerated acidification and weathering within the loess mantle. In addition, fine-textured underlying materials may have impeded water movement, resulting in a wetter environment in the loess that accelerated in situ clay formation or promoted deposition of clay from suspension. We propose that enhanced weathering of parent materials just above, and as a result of contact with, a contrasting material be referred to as basal weathering.

Soils of the Tropics and the World Food Crisis

The properties and potential of soils of the tropics are poorly understood. The old idea that laterite is formed when tropical soils are cleared is true of only a small proportion of the area. In most features, soils in the tropics are similar or equivalent to soils in the temperate regions. Specifically, soil organic matter contents, commonly believed to be low in the tropics, are essentially similar to those of the temperate regions. While the basic concepts about physical and chemical behavior developed in the nonglaciated temperate regions are directly applicable to the tropics, the development of soil management practices for sustained food production involves different strategies because of environmental and economic constraints. A major distinction is made between the development of high base status and low base status soils. With the former, soil management practices should be aimed at maximizing the potential of high-yielding varieties and improving intercropping systems with relatively intensive fertilizer inputs. With the low base status soils of the vast savanna and jungle areas energyrelated inputs should be optimized by (i) selecting of crop varieties and species more tolerant to nutritional deficiencies or toxicities, (ii) applying fertilizers at lower rates than those recommended by classic marginal analysis, and (iii) increasing the efficiency of applied fertilizers in such soils.

Parent Material of Upper‐ and Middle‐Coastal‐Plain Soils in North Carolina

AbstractIn the upper‐ and middle‐Coastal Plain of North Carolina, Paleudults are on the old landscapes; Hapludults, with low base status, are on the young valley side slopes. This distribution of soils suggests a parent‐material control of soil development. X‐ray and petrographic analyses of samples of the surficial sediments showed kaolinite to be the dominant clay mineral below the solum and quartz to be the primary sandsized mineral. Weatherable minerals such as feldspar are rare. The effective exchange capacity of the clay is less than 15 meq/100 g. Aluminum is the predominant cation, and the pH ranges from 4.2 to 4.8. The percent base saturation by the sum of cations is &lt; 35% both within and below the solum. The surficial sediment is most clayey at the surface and gradually becomes coarser with depth. The Paleudults are thus developed in the most clayey part of the sedimentary unit. These facts suggest the parent material was composed primarily of quartz sand and kaolinitic clay, with a low pH and with aluminum the dominant exchangeable cation. As a consequence only Ultisols developed; the original character of the parent material has strongly influenced such things as the mineralogy, base saturation, and vertical clay distribution.

WHITE CLOVER AND HILL LAND IMPROVEMENT

As a preliminary step in the development of improved bred varieties an examination has been made of the factors which contribute to the success or failure of white clover (Trifolium repens) in hill land reseeding. Severe restrictions are placed on clover performance and N fixation in many hill areas in Britain by the poor climate, the low pH and exchangeable base status of the soils and the low frequency of effective indigenous Rhizobium strains.Agronomic solutions to some of these problems exist, but experience in mid‐Wales suggests the need for new bred varieties with improved adaptation to the prevailing conditions, particular attention being directed to the limitation of N fixation by low soil temperature.

Soil Morphology and Genesis at Higher Elevations of the Great Smoky Mountains

AbstractProperties of soils representative of the elevation from 4,500 to 6,600 feet in the Smokies along the North Carolina‐Tennessee border are reported.Mean annual rainfall exceeds 80 inches. Mean air temperatures are: annual 45° to 49°F.; January, 31° to 35°F., July, 59° to 63°F. Parent rock is feldspathic sandstone and conglomerate. These soils can be placed in two groups: (1) lacking A2 horizons with thin A1 and “color B” horizons, and (2) with A2 horizons, Bir horizons, and relatively thick mor layers. Soils of the first group ordinarily occupy well‐drained sites under spruce‐fir forest. Those of the second group occupy less well‐drained sites under heath bald or rhododendron understory of sprucefir, with some indication that they tend to form from more quartzose conglomeratic rock.Soils of the first group are ascribed to the Sol Brun Acide great soil group on the basis of very low base status and high exchangeable Al, C/N levels, lack of relative accumulation of free iron and of layer silicates, and lack of A2 horizons. Second group soils are excluded from the Sol Brun Acide group, due to the presence of A2 horizons, differential iron accumulation, and C/N levels, and are interpreted as Podzols.Possible mechanisms are proposed to account for contrasting properties of the Sol Brun Acide and Podzol soils described, and the anomalous absence of A2 in the Sol Brun Acide of the Smokies. Extreme acid hydrolysis, producing intergradational three‐layer silicates plus kaolinite and gibbsite weathering end products, is postulated for these soils.