Loss Of Territory Research Articles

Capacity, Commitment, and Compliance

Why should governments delegate decision-making authority over territorial issues to an international institution? This study argues that governments are motivated to reach territorial solutions to reduce the opportunity costs associated with a festering dispute. The evidence suggests that domestic political incapacity to negotiate concessions is associated with a commitment to arbitrate. Compliance is a function of the net costs and benefits involved in accepting the arbitral decision. These costs include the loss of valuable territory, but noncompliance also exacts costs with respect to governments' reputation, both domestically and internationally. This research speaks to a broader debate about the role of international legal institutions in foreign policy making and international outcomes. It shows that governments have good reasons, under certain political and economic conditions, to use international legal processes as a substitute for domestic political decision making.

Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954-1960

The 1897 Anglo‐Ethiopian Treaty and the 1954 Anglo‐Ethiopian Agreement (under which one third of Somaliland – the Haud – was ceded to Ethiopia) were central to the partition and colonization of the Somaliland; they were also crucial to the decolonization of the country. When the 1954 agreement was announced, Somali nationalism became increasing militant: the Somali people organized protests in all the colonial territories; sent delegations to the United Kingdom and the United States to appeal the loss of territories; and threatened to use violence to recover the territories. Cabinet policy was to maintain Somaliland as a protectorate for the foreseeable future for geo‐political reasons: Somaliland was viewed as an important strategic asset in the containment of communism and Egyptian influence. Between 1954 and 1957, the Cabinet sought to manage Somali nationalism in two ways: first, by undertaking various diplomatic initiatives to return the lost territories; and second, by attempting to create ‘greater Somalia’ under the control of a consortium of international powers. When these efforts failed, the Cabinet decided in 1957 to grant Somaliland independence to coincide with the independence of Italian Somalia in 1 July 1960: between 1958 and 1960, Cabinet policy prepared Somaliland for independence and union with Somalia.

The consequences of disrupted dispersal in fragmented red‐cockaded woodpeckerPicoides borealispopulations

SummaryHabitat fragmentation may adversely affect animal populations through several mechanisms. However, little is known about how the impacts of some of these mechanisms are manifested in altered dynamics of wild populations.We used a spatially explicit individual‐based simulation model to examine the potential effects of disrupted dispersal due to fragmentation on the population dynamics of the endangered, co‐operatively breeding, red‐cockaded woodpeckerPicoides borealis.We simulated population dynamics as a function of population size and spatial aggregation of territories. Dispersal success (but not mortality or fecundity) was an emergent property of model runs. In the model all female and some male fledglings dispersed in straight lines in random directions, and the remaining males stayed on their natal territories as helpers and competed for breeding vacancies in their immediate neighbourhood.Population trend was tied to the higher dispersal success of both males and females in larger and less fragmented populations. Helpers were more successful than dispersing males. Male breeder recruitment depended entirely on helpers when populations were small (25 or 100 territories).Declining populations were characterized by high emigration rates and both failure and delay in female recruitment. The large numbers of unpaired males resulted in lowered reproductive output at the population level and in the loss of territories. Populations of 25 territories were stable when territories were highly aggregated, despite high emigration rates. These results closely match empirical observations.A number of co‐operatively breeding species are endangered. The unusual dispersal behaviour of helpers may make such species sensitive to habitat fragmentation but also resilient to reductions in population size when territories are aggregated. Small populations of co‐operative breeders may have considerable conservation value as a source of genetic diversity.

Indigenous struggle at the heart of Brazil: state policy, frontier expansion, and the Xavante Indians, 1937-1988

Indigenous Struggle at the Heart of Brazil examines the dynamic interplay between the Brazilian government and the Xavante Indians of central Brazil in the context of twentieth-century western frontier expansion and the state’s indigenous policy. Offering a window onto Brazilian developmental policy in Amazonia and the subsequent process of indigenous political mobilization, Seth Garfield bridges historical and anthropological approaches to reconsider state formation and ethnic identity in twentieth-century Brazil. Garfield explains how state officials, eager to promote capital accumulation, social harmony, and national security on the western front, sought to delimit indigenous reserves and assimilate native peoples. Yet he also shows that state efforts to celebrate Indians as primordial Brazilians and nationalist icons simultaneously served to underscore and redefine ethnic difference. Garfield explores how various other social actors—elites, missionaries, military officials, intellectuals, international critics, and the Indians themselves—strove to remold this multifaceted project. Paying particular attention to the Xavante’s methods of engaging state power after experience with exile, territorial loss, and violence in the “white” world, Garfield describes how they emerged under military rule not as the patriotic Brazilians heralded by state propagandists but as a highly politicized ethnic group clamoring for its constitutional land rights and social entitlements. Indigenous Struggle at the Heart of Brazil will interest not only historians and anthropologists but also those studying nationbuilding, Brazil, Latin America, comparative frontiers, race, and ethnicity.

In This Issue

Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies In This Issue The success of the Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies lies in the scholarship and creativity of its contributors, the advice and expertise of its editorial board members and the generous consideration of our many outside readers. Never has this been more clear than at the conference "Hispanic Cultural Studies: The State of the Art" held in Tucson on September 18-21, 2002. Through a variety of panels, round tables, general and special sessions and informal conversation, scholars from all over the world had the opportunity to exchange ideas about where the diverse and multidisci-plinary field of Cultural Studies had been, where it was going, and what its possibilities, responsibilities and challenges would prove to be as it becomes increasingly institutionalized yet more heterogeneous. The conference was an ideal opportunity to gather all of those friends and supporters of the journal who have made working on the alwaysevolving publication an exhilarating one for the past six years. Our global, virtual intellectual community became an actual community for three very productive and exciting days. Much like the "State the Art" conference, this volume's collection of essays spans centuries, continents, media and approaches. Xoán González-Millán discovers how cultural identity in contemporary Galicia is better understood when put in the context of the history of the Galician exile community, which maintained and refined certain sociocultural, political and ideological markers that were essential to the revitalization of Galician culture after the death of Franco. Kevin O'Donnell's careful attention to El único camino, the 1962 autobiography of the legendary orator and political activist Dolores Ibárruri "La Pasionaria" carefully bringing her out of the realm of myth and restoring her to history so that, as O'Donnell hopes in his conclusion, "we can put history in motion again." Lisa Surwillo begins her article with a critical look at the premiere of Garcia Gutierrez's play El Trovador in 1836. Her analysis of the connection between Spanish cultural production and reception, liberalism and romanticism is unique in its shifting of literary production fully into the realm of economics as she focuses on the analogy of the creation of a new literature to the creation of new lands, at a time in which Spain was still dealing with the loss of extensive colonial territories. Beatriz C. Peña takes a similar approach to a very different object of study when she looks at the eighteenth-century European depiction and definition of the Boricua in one of Puerto Rico's foundational texts, Historia geográfica, civil y natural de la isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico (1788) by Fray AgustÃ-n Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra. MarÃ-a Fernanda Lander's essay, informed by Michel Foucault and Norbert Elias's ideas about what civilizing and colonizing discourses both reveal and hide, studies Venezuelan Manuel Antonio Carreño's Manual de urbanidad y buenas maneras (1854) and seeks to uncover the ideology behind a text that is full of the anxiety of a new nation as it tries to incorporate itself into the "civilized rhythm" of the Old World. Toni Dorca urges us to reconsider the work of the Spanish nineteenth-century author José MarÃ-a de Pereda in light of visual discourses and technologies of the time that helped to shape his work and its aesthetic—namely, the poetics of costumbrismo, contemporary painting, and Mestres's illustrations. Guadalupe Cortina surveys the current situation of the (under)representation of Latinos in television and film in the United States and the cultural politics of Latinos in the mass media industries, with a special focus on Karyn Kusama's 2000 film Girlfight. Brad Epps is this volume's Guest Editor and has expertly compiled a set of essays that includes a variety of approaches to the culture of the city of Barcelona which, as he makes clear in his introduction, is much richer than we have been led to believe from the easily-consumed images of the cosmopolitan city by the sea that we are given, often by the Catalans themselves. José MarÃ-a RodrÃ-guez provides us with this volume's...

How to Recover the Holy Land: The Crusade Proposals of the Late Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries (review)

By the third quarter of the thirteenth century it was becoming increasingly apparent that Jerusalem, lost by the crusaders in 1187 and reoccupied for just a few years after 1229, was not going to be won back easily. Indeed, the continued threat to the Christian presence in the Levant and the loss of territory, especially after 1260, convinced most western observers that only a major military effort could re-establish Christian rule in the Holy Land. It was against this background that a number of authors drew up proposals for how this might be done. Many of these texts have long been in print and have been considered by previous writers such as Atiya and Schein. Dr. Leopold's study, however, makes a significant advance. He rightly stresses that these texts do not form a homogeneous genre but vary considerably depending on the circumstances in which they were written. Several authors were responding to requests for advice from the popes, notably Nicholas IV and Clement V; others were writing unsolicited advice for particular rulers who were known to have been interested in planning a crusade. Only rarely were the treatises themselves written as crusade propaganda. The authors were men of differing backgrounds and had contrasting degrees of information and experience of conditions in the East. Accordingly some were more practical than others. Opinions varied on preparations and strategy, with some writers more attuned to the problems to finance and recruitment, while comparatively few seem to have given much thought to how their conquests should be governed and defended following a successful campaign. After the 1330's and the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War, the prospects for a major expedition receded and the proposals dwindled correspondingly, although it appears that the view of the late thirteenth- and early fourteenth-century writers were still of interest to the fifteenth-century dukes of Burgundy.

EFRAIM KARSH AND INARI KARSH, Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789–1923 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999). Pp. 419. $29.95 cloth.

The subject of a promotional campaign by Harvard University Press, Empires of the Sand purports to challenge established scholarship with respect to the drawn-out demise of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1923. The Karshes argue that European imperialism was more benevolent than threatening and coexisted with Middle Eastern imperialisms—Ottoman, Egyptian, or Arab. In their view, European imperial powers “shored up” the Ottoman Empire rather than sought to deprive it of territories under its domain during the 19th century. To be sure, there was some European “nibbling at the edges of empire” (Algeria, Tunisia, Libya), but these incursions had little impact on the Ottomans; Cyprus (1878) is ignored. The only true “infringement on Ottoman territorial stability,” the British takeover of Egypt, happened by “chance not design,” with the blame attributed to Sultan Abdul Hamid's mismanagement of the crisis. The same story of Ottoman incompetence and attempts to manipulate European powers explains Ottoman loss of territory in the Balkans.

Taiwan's Future National Identity: Attitudes and Geopolitical Constraints

ROBERT M. MARSH [*] ABSTRACT People in Taiwan who favor the establishment of an independent Republic of Taiwan face the reality constraint that mainland (the PRC) threatens to use force to prevent this. Those who hold the opposite view and favor the reunification of Taiwan with mainland face a different reality constraint: the non-democratic, economically underdeveloped and, therefore, unappealing character of the PRC. These reality constraints were included in the way questions were phrased in several Taiwan surveys during the 1990s. Respondents were asked: (1) after Taiwan announces its independence it could maintain peaceful relations with Communist China, should Taiwan become an independent country? (2) mainland and Taiwan were to become similar in economic, political, and social conditions, should the two sides of the Strait be unified into one country? Depending on how a person answered both of these questions, s/he was categorized as having one of the following four types of national identification: Taiwan nationalist, nationalist, Pragmatist, and Conservative. This paper first analyzes the distribution of these four types of respondents in surveys conducted before and after the 1996 PRC firing of missiles into the waters near Taiwan's two largest seaports. Next, I show the effect of objective ethnicity (pen-sheng jen vs. wai-sheng jen) and subjective ethnicity (self-identification as Taiwanese or or both) on national identification preferences. These survey findings are then examined within a geopolitical context. From Beijing's point of view, the Taiwan independence movement is a secessionist movement. A comparative analysis of the outcomes of secessionist movements around the world shows that attempts at secession are almost always unsuccessful, for the basic reason that states do not willingly give up what they consider their sovereign territory. And since even modem democratic states are unwilling to accept a loss of territory, even a future democratic PRC would be unlikely to accept Taiwan's independence. AMONG THE POPULATION of Taiwan, those who favor the establishment of an independent Republic of Taiwan face the reality constraint that mainland (the PRC) has not renounced the use of military force if Taiwan declares its independence. Supporters of the opposite type of national identity -- reunification of Taiwan with mainland -- also face a reality constraint: the non-democratic, economically less developed character of the PRC. Surveys of attitudes in Taiwan toward future national identity made a significant advance in 1992 when they began annually to use Wu Naiteh's new formulation (Wu 1993) and to ask respondents: (1) If after Taiwan announced its independence it could maintain peacful relations with the Chinese communist government, then Taiwan should become an independent country. Do you agree? (2) If mainland and Taiwan were to become similar in economic, social and political conditions, then the two sides of the Strait should be united into one country. Do you agree? The second view is basically the position of President Lee Teng-hui, who stated in an address to the National Unification Council on July 22, 1998, China must be reunified. However, this reunification must be under a system of democracy, freedom and equitable prosperity... The nation should by no means be unified under the proven failure of comunism or the so-called 'one country, two systems' formula (Taiwan Research Institute 1998b:5). Even the PRC regime is aware that China's present political institutions and economy are more alienating than appealing to Taiwan residents. From answers to these two questions, Wu (1993, 1997) and Shen and Wu (1998) classified respondents into four types of national identification preferences: Taiwan nationalists, nationalists, Pragmatists, and Conservatives (see Table 1). …

The Passenger

This article argues that, at first, there appears to be little space for feminism in Virilio's general critique of the loss of physical and mental territories under the impact of technologies and teletechnologies. Allusions to women are mainly taken up in general arguments about progressive immobilization of humans. One exception, however, is a recurring passage of woman as carrier of man. This scene makes of woman a privileged mediator between immanence and movement and, through the introduction of Eros, even between physical, grounded space and ungrounded mobility.

Disrupted cortical map and absence of cortical barrels in growth-associated protein (GAP)-43 knockout mice.

There is strong evidence that growth-associated protein (GAP-43), a protein found only in the nervous system, regulates the response of neurons to axonal guidance signals. However, its role in complex spatial patterning in cerebral cortex has not been explored. We show that mice lacking GAP-43 expression (-/-) fail to establish the ordered whisker representation (barrel array) normally found in layer IV of rodent primary somatosensory cortex. Thalamocortical afferents to -/- cortex form irregular patches in layer IV within a poorly defined cortical field, which varies between hemispheres, rather than the stereotypic, whisker-specific, segregated map seen in normal animals. Furthermore, many thalamocortical afferents project abnormally to widely separated cortical targets. Taken together, our findings indicate a loss of identifiable whisker territories in the GAP-43 -/- mouse cortex. Here, we present a disrupted somatotopic map phenotype in cortex, in clear contrast to the blurring of boundaries within an ordered whisker map in other barrelless mutants. Our results indicate that GAP-43 expression is critical for the normal establishment of ordered topography in barrel cortex.

The Rule of Law in International Affairs: International Law at the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations. By Ian Brownlie. The Hague, London, Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998. Pp. xix, 228. Index. Fl 155; $84; £53.

The Rule of Law in International Affairs: International Law at the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations. By Ian Brownlie. The Hague, London, Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998. Pp. xix, 228. Index. Fl 155; $84; £53. - Volume 93 Issue 3

Role of Xrx1 in Xenopus eye and anterior brain development.

The anteriormost part of the neural plate is fated to give rise to the retina and anterior brain regions. In Xenopus, this territory is initially included within the expression domain of the bicoid-class homeobox gene Xotx2 but very soon, at the beginning of neurulation, it becomes devoid of Xotx2 transcripts in spatiotemporal concomitance with the transcriptional activation of the paired-like homeobox gene Xrx1. By use of gain- and loss-of-function approaches, we have studied the role played by Xrx1 in the anterior neural plate and its interactions with other anterior homeobox genes. We find that, at early neurula stage Xrx1 is able to repress Xotx2 expression, thus first defining the retina-diencephalon territory in the anterior neural plate. Overexpression studies indicate that Xrx1 possesses a proliferative activity that is coupled with the specification of anterior fate. Expression of a Xrx1 dominant repressor construct (Xrx1-EnR) results in a severe impairment of eye and anterior brain development. Analysis of several brain markers in early Xrx1-EnR-injected embryos reveals that anterior deletions are preceded by a reduction of anterior gene expression domains in the neural plate. Accordingly, expression of anterior markers is abolished or decreased in animal caps coinjected with the neural inducer chordin and the Xrx1-EnR construct. The lack of expansion of mid-hindbrain markers, and the increase of apoptosis in the anterior neural plate after Xrx1-EnR injection, indicate that anterior deletions result from an early loss of anterior neural plate territories rather than posteriorization of the neuroectoderm. Altogether, these data suggest that Xrx1 plays a role in assigning anterior and proliferative properties to the rostralmost part of the neural plate, thus being required for eye and anterior brain development.

New art, new world: British art in postwar society

During the years following World War II, Britain was plagued by privation, xenophobia, and humiliation from the loss of colonial territories and political power. At the same time, the country was in the midst of a dawning triumphalism, seen first in the Festival of Britain, then in the new Coventry Cathedral, and finally in the international status accorded to British art by the early 1960s. This book sets the visual arts in the social and political context of these complex years. Margaret Garlake establishes the intellectual, historical, and organizational frameworks within which art was made and received by critics and the public. She discusses problems raised by abstract art, links between art and politics (culminating in the Unknown Political Prisoner competition), and misapprehensions concerning art from the colonial territories. She describes such new institutions as the Arts and British Councils, the Institute of Contemporary Arts, and commercial galleries, all of which played crucial roles in sustaining artists and promoting their work. She examines the perception of a national tradition, grounded visually in landscape and place but heavily influenced by politics. And she investigates the negotiations undertaken by artists and critics sensitive to the nuances of tradition to respond to the impact of an international, American- oriented art. Finally, Garlake focuses on the broad themes within which many artists worked, including public art, landscape, the city, and the human body as mother, sex object, survivor, or worker.

The Incidence of Nonbreeding by Adult Great Skuas and Parasitic Jaegers from Foula, Shetland

Several recent studies of seabirds have found high levels of nonbreeding by experienced adults. By contrast, just 8.9% (range 4-14%) of experienced Great Skuas (Catharacta skua) on Foula, Shetland Islands, deferred breeding between 1989-1996. For Parasitic Jaegers (Stercorarius parasiticus), a corresponding value of 5.5% (range 3-8%) was found between 1993-1994. Only 3% of the territorial pairs of Parasitic Jaegers, including new recruits, failed to lay eggs. Higher incidence of nonbreeding in Great Skuas was recorded in years when fledging production was low. Loss of mate due to death or divorce was the main direct cause of nonbreeding. Loss of territory also was important for male birds. In Great Skuas, more males missed a breeding season than females, but the same did not apply to Parasitic Jaegers. Very young and very old Great Skuas were more likely to defer breeding than mid-aged birds. Evidence is presented that the decline in breeding frequency of old birds was due to senescence as opposed to increased frequency of mate-changes resulting from a high mortality of old partners.

Les Vietnamiens au Cambodge : analyse des représentations et des conditions d'une intégration

The Vietnamese came to Cambodia for a long time through different migration processes. Called yun, they live mostly in urban areas and suffer from negative representations. The Phnom Penh opposition press presents them as invaders sent by the Hanoi regime. Ethnicity is understood as a social interaction in a multiethnic context in which mutual definitions are articulated. For the Vietnamese in Cambodia, ethnicity is a built-in answer to survival needs when confronted with open discriminatory political discourse. Depending on the history of their migration, the Vietnamese will choose different integration strategies. For example those who came centuries ago as fishermen on the big Tonle sap lake, define their identity in terms of deep comple-mentarity with the Khmer rice farmers, and they claim to be part of this country. We want to show that in Cambodia the Vietnamese problem is less an ethnic problem than a political one linked to the fear of loss of national territory that has been reduced through centuries. The racial discourse maintains confusion of level and persons and it is an easy way to avoid seeing what are the real Cambodian problems.

A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism

The foundation of this association has now been laid. People call us Blue Shirts or terrorists. That is nothing. The important problem to be solved is how to create a new revolutionary atmosphere so as to lead the revolutionary masses⃜ In China today definite action must be taken for temporary relief as well as for fundamental cure. However, what we need now is a fundamental cure. Our present problem is not the Japanese. Our problem is not the invasion of our north-eastern provinces and Jehol. If we can maintain the status quo, it will be enough for the present time. As a revolutionary government, the loss of a little territory does not mean much. A revolutionary movement has both to advance and retreat. When our strength is not enough, it is natural to retreat. We have lost territory today, but we will take it back the next day when we have strength

Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct.

Substantial functional reorganization takes place in the motor cortex of adult primates after a focal ischemic infarct, as might occur in stroke. A subtotal lesion confined to a small portion of the representation of one hand was previously shown to result in a further loss of hand territory in the adjacent, undamaged cortex of adult squirrel monkeys. In the present study, retraining of skilled hand use after similar infarcts resulted in prevention of the loss of hand territory adjacent to the infarct. In some instances, the hand representations expanded into regions formerly occupied by representations of the elbow and shoulder. Functional reorganization in the undamaged motor cortex was accompanied by behavioral recovery of skilled hand function. These results suggest that, after local damage to the motor cortex, rehabilitative training can shape subsequent reorganization in the adjacent intact cortex, and that the undamaged motor cortex may play an important role in motor recovery.

Tail Loss and Dominance in Captive Adult Male Anolis sagrei

We studied the effects of tail loss on dominance relationships of captive male Anolis sagrei. Densities of free ranging male and female anoles were measured and used to establish the number of individuals to be placed in experimental enclosures. We placed two male and three female brown anoles in each of four outdoor enclosures. We observed males establish dominance and quantified aggressive interactions between the paired individuals. Territory size of the dominant male was determined by the minimum convex polygon method. After the dominance relationship between males was established, a portion of the dominant male's tail was removed. To simulate natural conditions, males were returned to their enclosures immediately after tail removal. We also measured the level of aggressiveness, and territory size of the dominant male after tail removal. Males that were dominant before tail removal remained dominant and did not change in aggressiveness after removal. Territory size of dominant males before and after tail removal did not differ. Our findings suggest that tail loss may be of minor consequence to an individual Anolis sagrei once it has established a territory. If tail autotomy resulted in a loss of territory and thereby, loss of reproductive opportunities, then benefits accrued from tail autotomy (increased survivorship) would be discounted by the diminished reproductive output.

The Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia: Esther B. Rhoads and Humanitarian Efforts in Postwar Japan, 1946-1952

The LicensedAgenciesfor Reliefin Asia: Esther B. Rhoads and Humanitarian Efforts in Postwar Japan, 1946-1952 Thomas S. Rogers* This article discusses a positive chapter in U.S.-Japan relations: relief work undertaken by American Christian organizations in postwar Japan between 1946 and 1952. 1 contend that American churches' involvement in reliefwork through the Licensed Agencies for Reliefin Asia (LARA) was part ofa larger American effort to spread Christianity and democracy throughoutthe world. Themostnotable aspectofthe LARAreliefprogram rested in its volunteers' commitment to humanitarian rather than evangelical concerns. While the churches themselves saw reliefwork as part of a larger worldwide "Christianizing" effort, LARA's own vision focused on providing humanitarian reliefto "war victims" and serving as a model to the Japanese ofan American institution grounded in democratic, egalitarian , and charitable principles. Postwar Japan American Christian missionaries returning to Japan in 1946 were startled to see the vast transformation that had occurred during the war years. EstherB. Rhoads, anAmerican Friends Service Committee official, travelling by bus from Atsugi airport to Tokyo in June 1946, recounts: As we approached Yokohama destruction became noticeable and soon we were in the midst ofit all. Yokohama seemed practically leveled. Could see ruins ofKyoritsu' & other buildings on the bluff. Much like the scene after the earthquake—piles of rubble—rusted safes, a few shacks of burned & rustedtin, a few new houses. Some attempt at fields orpatches ofvegetables. (Diary, June 22, 1946) Rhoads was returning to Yokohama city for the first time since 1940. Her comparison ofcurrent damage to that experienced inthe Tokyo earthquake of 1923 is revealing: for several months she worked on a Japan Service Committee emergency relief project that provided humanitarian aid to earthquake victims. Japanese historians substantiate Rhoads' first-hand account. Hugh Bortón characterizes Japan's economic situation in 1945-46 as a period in which scarcity of food, shelter and clothing was acute and industrial Thomas S. Rogers works in Tokyo inthe Finance Department ofKobe Steel, Ltd. He would like to acknowledge his indebtedness to Paul J. Smith. Additionally, he would like to thank Elisabeth Potts Brown and Diana Franzusoff Peterson of Haverford College's Quaker Collection, as well as Jack Suiters ofthe American Friends Service Committee, for their support. Esther B. Rhoads and LARA19 production negligible (407). Michael Schaller estimates that, by August 1945, Allied Forces' bombing raids had laid waste to approximately 40 percent ofJapanese cities (27), while Theodore Cohen2 writes that, by the end of the war, 70 percent of Tokyo, 80 percent of Osaka and up to 90 percent ofNagoya had been destroyed (4). With such large-scale devastation in Japan's urban areas, it is not surprising that many Japanese city dwellers found themselves homeless, naked, andhungry. Rhoads, travelingaroundJapan in the summerof1946, encountered thousands ofdesperate people both on the streets and housed in public and private institutions. Strolling through the Ginza district of Tokyo inJuly 1946, Rhoadspassed"Hundredfs] ofaimlesspeoplewalking the streets." Later that month, Rhoads met over a thousand mentally retarded adults and undernourished or tubercular children living at a "Poor Farm," located fifteen miles outside Osaka city (Diary, July 11, 1946). In addition to the devastation brought to Japanese cities by Allied Forces' bombing expeditions and the abysmal state of the Japanese industrial sector in 1945, what other factors contributed to postwar economic collapse? Cohen mentions two: lower-than-average agricultural yield and extensive territorial loss. Domestic food production in 1945 droppeddrasticallyfromprewarlevels. Between 1944 and 1945 alone,rice production dropped by 30 percent while barley and wheat production fell by 50 percent. Whereas in 1940 the average Tokyo residentreceived 2260 caloriesperday,by 1946, thisnumberhadfallenbymorethantwo-thirds— to about 700 calories per day. Regarding Japan's extensive territorial loss, Cohen notes that with the 1 944-45 dismantling ofthe Japanese empire, the nation lost its critical, external source offood andraw materials (142, 145). One other factorcontributingto economic collapsewas inflation. Between August 1945 and January 1946 alone, the cost of living for the average wage earner in Tokyo increased more than tenfold. Inflation remained a problem within Japan until 1949 (Bortón 408). The lower than expectedagricultural yield and extensive territorial loss meant that starvation was a distinct possibility for Japanese citizens in the years immediately followingthe war. When General Douglas...

Partial Loss of Red-Tailed Hawk Territories to Swainson's Hawks: Relations to Habitat

Of a population of 33 pairs of Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) inhabiting north-central Oregon, 9 and 10 pairs lost portions of their breeding territories to later-arriving Swainson's Hawks (B. swainsoni) in 1977 and 1978, respectively. The loss was accompanied by aggressive Swainson's Hawk behavior and vigorous Red-tailed Hawk defense. Analysis of the habitat relinquished by Red-tailed Hawks showed perch availability to be an important resource in the habitat relations of these species. Red-tailed Hawks abandoned areas with perches at moderate densities (0.3-0.6 perch/ha) more often than expected by chance while preferentially retaining areas with greater perch densities. The habitat lost by Red-tailed Hawks is associated with high reproductive performance.