Lorentz Force Changes Research Articles

Magnetic Imprints of Eruptive and Noneruptive Solar Flares as Observed by Solar Dynamics Observatory

Abstract The abrupt and permanent changes of the photospheric magnetic field in the localized regions of active regions during solar flares, called magnetic imprints (MIs), have been observed for nearly the past three decades. The well-known coronal implosion model is assumed to explain such flare-associated changes but the complete physical understanding is still missing and debatable. In this study, we made a systematic analysis of flare-related changes of the photospheric magnetic field during 21 flares (14 eruptive and seven noneruptive) using the 135 s cadence vector magnetogram data obtained from the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager. The MI regions for eruptive flares are found to be strongly localized, whereas the majority of noneruptive events (>70%) have scattered imprint regions. To quantify the strength of the MIs, we derived the integrated change of horizontal field and the total change of Lorentz force over an area. These quantities correlate well with the flare strength, irrespective of whether flares are eruptive or not, or have a short or long duration. Further, the free energy (FE), determined from virial theorem estimates, exhibits a statistically significant downward trend that starts around the flare time and is observed in the majority of flares. The change of FE during flares does not depend on eruptivity but has a strong positive correlation (≈0.8) with the Lorentz force change, indicating that part of the FE released would penetrate the photosphere. While these results strongly favor the idea of significant feedback from the corona on the photospheric magnetic field, the characteristics of MIs are quite indistinguishable from flares being eruptive or not.

On the seismic emission in sunspots associated with Lorentz force changes accompanying major solar flares

ABSTRACT Solar flares are known to generate seismic waves in the Sun. We present a detailed analysis of seismic emission in sunspots accompanying M- and X-class solar flares. For this purpose, we have used high-resolution Dopplergrams and line-of-sight magnetograms at a cadence of 45 s, along with vector magnetograms at a cadence of 135 s obtained from Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager instrument aboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory space mission. In order to identify the location of flare ribbons and hard X-ray footpoints, we have also used Hα chromospheric intensity observations obtained from Global Oscillation Network Group instruments and hard X-ray images in 12–25 keV band from the Reuvan Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager spacecraft. The fast Fourier transform technique is applied to construct the acoustic velocity power map in 2.5–4 mHz band for pre-flare, spanning flare, and post-flare epochs for the identification of seismic emission locations in the sunspots. In the power maps, we have selected only those locations which are away from the flare ribbons and hard X-ray footpoints. These regions are believed to be free from any flare related artefacts in the observational data. We have identified concentrated locations of acoustic power enhancements in sunspots accompanying major flares. Our investigation provides evidence that abrupt changes in the magnetic fields and associated impulsive changes in the Lorentz force could be the driving source for these seismic emissions in the sunspots during solar flares.

Lorentz Force Evolution Reveals the Energy Build-up Processes during Recurrent Eruptive Solar Flares

Abstract The energy release and build-up processes in the solar corona have significant implications in particular for the case of large recurrent flares, which pose challenging questions about the conditions that lead to the episodic energy release processes. It is not yet clear whether these events occur due to the continuous supply of free magnetic energy to the solar corona or because not all of the available free magnetic energy is released during a single major flaring event. In order to address this question, we report on the evolution of photospheric magnetic field and the associated net Lorentz force changes in ARs 11261 and 11283, each of which gave rise to recurrent eruptive M- and X-class flares. Our study reveals that after the abrupt downward changes during each flare, the net Lorentz force increases by (2–5) × 1022 dyne in between the successive flares. This distinct rebuild-up of net Lorentz forces is the first observational evidence found in the evolution of any nonpotential parameter of solar active regions (ARs), which suggests that new energy was supplied to the ARs in order to produce the recurrent large flares. The rebuild-up of magnetic free energy of the ARs is further confirmed by the observations of continuous shearing motion of moving magnetic features of opposite polarities near the polarity inversion line. The evolutionary pattern of the net Lorentz force changes reported in this study has significant implications, in particular, for the forecasting of recurrent large eruptive flares from the same AR and hence the chances of interaction between the associated CMEs.

A Statistical Study of the Magnetic Imprints of X-class Solar Flares

Abstract Magnetic imprints, the rapid and irreversible evolution of photospheric magnetic fields as feedback from flares in the corona, have been confirmed by many previous studies. These studies showed that the horizontal field will permanently increase at the polarity inversion line (PIL) after eruptions, indicating that a more horizontal geometry of the photospheric magnetic field is produced. In this study, we analyze 20 X-class flares since the launch of the Solar Dynamics Observatory in 15 active regions with heliographic angles no greater than 45°. We observe clear magnetic imprints in 16 flares, whereas 4 flares are exceptional. The imprint regions of the horizontal field are located not only at the PIL but also at sunspot penumbra with strong vertical fields. Making use of the observed mass and speed of the corresponding coronal mass ejections (CMEs), we find that the CMEs with larger momenta are associated with stronger magnetic imprints. Furthermore, a linear relationship, with a Kendall’s Tau-b coefficient 0.54, between the CME momentum and the change of Lorentz force, is revealed. Based on that, we quantify the back reaction time to be ∼70 s, with a 90% confidence interval from about 50 to 90 s.

Abrupt Changes in the Photospheric Magnetic Field, Lorentz Force, and Magnetic Shear during 15 X-class Flares

During major solar flares, the photospheric magnetic field of the flaring active region is often observed to change abruptly, permanently, and significantly. Here we analyze vector magnetograms covering 15 X-class flares observed in 11 active regions by the Solar Dynamic Observatory Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager. Resolving magnetic changes using a reference potential field, more complex magnetic field, Lorentz force, and magnetic shear changes could be analyzed than previously. In each case, physical and coherent patterns of change were found. Generally the dominant change was in the horizontal field component that strengthened in the central structure, accompanied there by a downward Lorentz force change and strengthening of horizontal magnetic shear consistent with magnetic implosion, with weaker changes of opposite sign in neighboring and peripheral regions including sunspots. In most cases this central structure was a strong, sheared photospheric magnetic neutral line, but in one case it was an isolated unipolar sunspot. Magnetic relaxation in the vertical direction was typical throughout the flaring regions. Unique in this study was the behavior at bald-patch structures during the X-class flares of 2017 September 6 in NOAA Active Region 12673. During the X9.3 flare, the horizontal and vertical field components weakened and the shear relaxed in horizontal and vertical directions, indicating a large free magnetic energy source for the flare. The magnetic changes at the bald patches exhibited evidence of organized vertical magnetic flux reduction during three X-class flares, not found at other structures, suggesting the greater possibilities of magnetic reconfiguration and energy release at bald patches.

On the Dynamics of the Largest Active Region of the Solar Cycle 24

AbstractWe have studied the dynamics of the solar active region (AR) NOAA 12192 using full-disc continuum images and the vector magnetograms observed by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) onboard Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). AR 12192 is the largest region of the solar cycle 24. It underwent a noticeable growth and produced 6 X-class, 22 M-class and 53 C-class flares during its disc passage. But the most peculiar fact of this AR is that it was associated with only one CME in spite of producing several X-class flares. In this work, we present the area evolution of this giant sunspot group during the first three rotations when it appeared as AR 12172, AR 12192 and AR 12209, respectively. We have also attempted to make a comparative study of the flare-related photospheric magnetic field and Lorentz force changes for both the eruptive and non-eruptive flares produced by AR 12192.

Sudden Penumbral Reappearance and Umbral Motion Induced by an M7.9 Solar Flare

Abstract The sudden flare-related changes of sunspot structures have been recognized as the photospheric responses to the solar eruptions in the corona. In this study, we report two distinctive sunspots variations associated with the flare SOL2015-06-25T08:16 (M7.9). Along the flaring polarity inversion line (PIL), the originally decayed penumbra showed a sudden reappearance, with the horizontal fields increasing in the direction of the penumbral fibrils aligned. On the other hand, the small umbra, where the reappearing penumbra rooted, had a sudden northeastward motion, toward the north part of a large sunspot located in the other side of PIL. Based on the calculation of Lorentz force changes, the area of penumbral reappearance mainly suffered a downward pressure, while the umbra region was dominated by the northeastward lateral pressure. These observations can be well understood as a result of coronal fields contraction, which can be deduced from the nonlinear force-free field extrapolation model. It also confirms the implosion idea that the restructuring of coronal fields could impact the solar surface and interior.

Flare differentially rotates sunspot on Sun's surface.

Sunspots are concentrations of magnetic field visible on the solar surface (photosphere). It was considered implausible that solar flares, as resulted from magnetic reconnection in the tenuous corona, would cause a direct perturbation of the dense photosphere involving bulk motion. Here we report the sudden flare-induced rotation of a sunspot using the unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution of the 1.6 m New Solar Telescope, supplemented by magnetic data from the Solar Dynamics Observatory. It is clearly observed that the rotation is non-uniform over the sunspot: as the flare ribbon sweeps across, its different portions accelerate (up to ∼50° h−1) at different times corresponding to peaks of flare hard X-ray emission. The rotation may be driven by the surface Lorentz-force change due to the back reaction of coronal magnetic restructuring and is accompanied by a downward Poynting flux. These results have direct consequences for our understanding of energy and momentum transportation in the flare-related phenomena.

RAPID PENUMBRA AND LORENTZ FORCE CHANGES IN AN X1.0 SOLAR FLARE

ABSTRACT We present observations of the violent changes in photospheric magnetic structures associated with an X1.1 flare, which occurred in a compact δ-configuration region in the following part of AR 11890 on 2013 November 8. In both central and peripheral penumbra regions of the small δ sunspot, these changes took place abruptly and permanently in the reverse direction during the flare: the inner/outer penumbra darkened/disappeared, where the magnetic fields became more horizontal/vertical. Particularly, the Lorentz force (LF) changes in the central/peripheral region had a downward/upward and inward direction, meaning that the local pressure from the upper atmosphere was enhanced/released. It indicates that the LF changes might be responsible for the penumbra changes. These observations can be well explained as the photospheric response to the coronal field reconstruction within the framework of the magnetic implosion theory and the back reaction model of flares.

Photospheric and Coronal Observations of Abrupt Magnetic Restructuring in Two Flaring Active Regions

For two major X-class flares observed by the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) and the Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory Ahead (STEREO-A) spacecraft when they were close to quadrature, we compare major, abrupt changes in the photospheric magnetic vector field to changes in the observed coronal magnetic structure during the two flares. The Lorentz force changes in strong photospheric fields within active regions are estimated from time series of SDO Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) vector magnetograms. These show that the major changes occurred in each case near the main neutral line of the region and in two neighboring twisted opposite-polarity sunspots. In each case the horizontal parallel field strengthened significantly near the neutral line while the azimuthal field in the sunspots decreased, suggesting that a flux rope joining the two sunspots collapsed across the neutral line with reduced magnetic pressure because of a reduced field twist component. At the same time, the coronal extreme ultraviolet (EUV) loop structure was observed by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) onboard SDO and the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUVI) on STEREO-A to decrease significantly in height during each eruption, discontinuous changes signifying ejection of magnetized plasma, and outward-propagating continuous but abrupt changes consistent with loop contraction. An asymmetry in the observed EUV loop changes during one of the flares matches an asymmetry in the photospheric magnetic changes associated with that flare. The observations are discussed in terms of the well-known tether-cutting and breakout flare initiation models.

Estimating Flare-Related Photospheric Lorentz Force Vector Changes Within Active Regions

It is shown that expressions for the global Lorentz force associated with a flaring active region derived by Fisher {\it et al.} (2012) can be used to estimate the Lorentz force changes for strong fields in large structures over photospheric subdomains within active regions. Gary's~(2001) model for the stratified solar atmosphere is used to demonstrate that in large-scale structures with typical horizontal magnetic length scale $\gg 300$~km and with strong magnetic fields ($\ge 1$~kG at the $\tau =1$ opacity layer at 5000~\AA), the Lorentz force acting on the photosphere may be approximated by a surface integral based on photospheric boundary data alone. These conditions cover many of the sunspot fields and major neutral lines that have been studied using Fisher {\it et al.}'s (2012) expressions over the past few years. The method gives a reasonable estimate of flare-related Lorentz force changes based on photospheric magnetogram observations provided that the Lorentz force changes associated with the flare have a lasting effect on the observed fields, and are not immediately erased by post-flare equilibration processes.

SUDDEN PHOTOSPHERIC MOTION AND SUNSPOT ROTATION ASSOCIATED WITH THE X2.2 FLARE ON 2011 FEBRUARY 15

The Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager provides 45 s cadence intensity images and 720 s cadence vector magnetograms. These unprecedented high-cadence and high-resolution data give us a unique opportunity to study the change of photospheric flows and sunspot rotations associated with flares. By using the differential affine velocity estimator method and the Fourier local correlation tracking method separately, we calculate velocity and vorticity of photospheric flows in the flaring NOAA AR 11158, and investigate their temporal evolution around the X2.2 flare on 2011 February 15. It is found that the shear flow around the flaring magnetic polarity inversion line exhibits a sudden decrease, and both of the two main sunspots undergo a sudden change in rotational motion during the impulsive phase of the flare. These results are discussed in the context of the Lorentz-force change that was proposed by Hudson et al. (2008) and Fisher et al. (2012). This mechanism can explain the connections between the rapid and irreversible photospheric vector magnetic field change and the observed short-term motions associated with the flare. In particular, the torque provided by the horizontal Lorentz force change agrees with what is required for the measured angular acceleration.

THE ABRUPT CHANGES IN THE PHOTOSPHERIC MAGNETIC AND LORENTZ FORCE VECTORS DURING SIX MAJOR NEUTRAL-LINE FLARES

We analyze the spatial and temporal variations of the abrupt photospheric magnetic changes associated with six major flares using 12-minute, 0.5-arcsec vector magnetograms from NASA's Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager instrument (HMI) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory satellite. The six major flares occurred near the main magnetic neutral lines of four active regions, NOAA 11158, 11166, 11283 and 11429. During all six flares the neutral line field vectors became stronger and more horizontal, in each case almost entirely due to strengthening of the horizontal field components parallel to the neutral line. In all six cases the neutral line pre-flare fields were more vertical than the reference potential fields, and collapsed abruptly and permanently closer to potential field tilt angles during every flare, implying that the relaxation of magnetic stress associated with non-potential tilt angles plays a major role during major flares. The shear angle with respect to the reference potential field did not show such a pattern, demonstrating that flare processes do not generally relieve magnetic stresses associated with photospheric magnetic shear. The horizontal fields became significantly and permanently more aligned with the neutral line during the four largest flares, suggesting that the collapsing field is on average more aligned with the neutral line than the pre-flare neutral line field. The vertical Lorentz force had a large, abrupt, permanent downward change during each of the flares, consistent with loop collapse. The horizontal Lorentz force changes acted mostly parallel to the neutral line in opposite directions on each side, a signature of the fields contracting during the flare, pulling the two sides of the neutral line towards each other. The greater effect of the flares on field tilt than on shear may be explained by photospheric line-tying.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SUDDEN CHANGE OF THE LORENTZ FORCE AND THE MAGNITUDE OF ASSOCIATED FLARES

The rapid and irreversible change of photospheric magnetic fields associated with flares has been confirmed by many recent studies. These studies showed that the photospheric magnetic fields respond to coronal field restructuring and turn to a more horizontal state near the magnetic polarity inversion line (PIL) after eruptions. Recent theoretical work has shown that the change in the Lorentz force associated with a magnetic eruption will lead to such a field configuration at the photosphere. The Helioseismic Magnetic Imager has been providing unprecedented full-disk vector magnetograms covering the rising phase of the solar cycle 24. In this study, we analyze 18 flares in four active regions, with GOES X-ray class ranging from C4.7 to X5.4. We find that there are permanent and rapid changes of magnetic field around the flaring PIL, the most notable of which is the increase of the transverse magnetic field. The changes of fields integrated over the area and the derived change of Lorentz force both show a strong correlation with flare magnitude. It is the first time that such magnetic field changes have been observed even for C-class flares. Furthermore, for seven events with associated CMEs, we use an estimate of the impulse provided by the Lorentz force, plus the observed CME velocity, to estimate the CME mass. We find that if the time scale of the back reaction is short, i.e., in the order of 10 s, the derived values of CME mass (10^{15} g) generally agree with those reported in literature.

A Spatio-temporal Description of the Abrupt Changes in the Photospheric Magnetic and Lorentz-Force Vectors During the 15 February 2011 X2.2 Flare

The active region NOAA 11158 produced the first X-class flare of Solar Cycle 24, an X2.2 flare at 01:44 UT on 2011 February 15. Here we analyze SDO/HMI magnetograms covering a 12-hour interval centered at the time of this flare. We describe the spatial distributions of the photospheric magnetic changes associated with this flare, including the abrupt changes in the field vector, vertical electric current and Lorentz force vector. We also trace these parameters' temporal evolution. The abrupt magnetic changes were concentrated near the neutral line and in two neighboring sunspots. Near the neutral line, the field vectors became stronger and more horizontal during the flare and the shear increased. This was due to an increase in strength of the horizontal field components near the neutral line, most significant in the horizontal component parallel to the neutral line but the perpendicular component also increased in strength. The vertical component did not show a significant, permanent overall change at the neutral line. The increase in total flux at the neutral line was accompanied by a compensating flux decrease in the surrounding volume. In the two sunspots near the neutral line the azimuthal flux abruptly decreased during the flare but this change was permanent in only one of the spots. There was a large, abrupt, downward vertical Lorentz force change during the flare, consistent with results of past analyses and recent theoretical work. The horizontal Lorentz force acted in opposite directions along each side of neutral line, with the two sunspots at each end subject to abrupt torsional forces. The shearing forces were consistent with field contraction and decrease of shear near the neutral line, whereas the field itself became more sheared as a result of the flux collapsing towards the neutral line from the surrounding volume.

Global Forces in Eruptive Solar Flares: The Lorentz Force Acting on the Solar Atmosphere and the Solar Interior

We compute the change in the Lorentz force integrated over the outer solar atmosphere implied by observed changes in vector magnetograms that occur during large, eruptive solar flares. This force perturbation should be balanced by an equal and opposite force perturbation acting on the solar photosphere and solar interior. The resulting expression for the estimated force change in the solar interior generalizes the earlier expression presented by Hudson, Fisher and Welsch (CS-383, ASP, 221, 2008), providing horizontal as well as vertical force components, and provides a more accurate result for the vertical component of the perturbed force. We show that magnetic eruptions should result in the magnetic field at the photosphere becoming more horizontal, and hence should result in a downward (towards the solar interior) force change acting on the photosphere and solar interior, as recently argued from an analysis of magnetogram data by Wang and Liu (Astrophys. J. Lett. 716, L195, 2010). We suggest the existence of an observational relationship between the force change computed from changes in the vector magnetograms, the outward momentum carried by the ejecta from the flare, and the properties of the helioseismic disturbance driven by the downward force change. We use the impulse driven by the Lorentz-force change in the outer solar atmosphere to derive an upper limit to the mass of erupting plasma that can escape from the Sun. Finally, we compare the expected Lorentz-force change at the photosphere with simple estimates from flare-driven gasdynamic disturbances and from an estimate of the perturbed pressure from radiative backwarming of the photosphere in flaring conditions.

ABRUPT LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIC FIELD CHANGES IN FLARING ACTIVE REGIONS

We characterize the changes in the longitudinal photospheric magnetic field during 38 X-class and 39 M-class flares within $65^{\circ}$ of disk-center using 1-minute GONG magnetograms. In all 77 cases we identify at least one site in the flaring active region where clear, permanent, stepwise field changes occurred. The median duration of the field changes was about 15 minutes and was approximately equal for X-class and for M-class flares. The absolute values of the field changes ranged from the detection limit of $\sim\!\!10$~G to as high as $\sim\!\!450$~G in two exceptional cases. The median value was 69~G. Field changes were significantly stronger for X-class than for M-class flares and for limb flares than for disk-center flares. Longitudinal field changes less than 100~G tended to decrease longitudinal field strengths, both close to disk-center and close to the limb, while field changes greater than 100~G showed no such pattern. Likewise, longitudinal flux strengths tended to decrease during flares. Flux changes, particularly net flux changes near disk-center, correlated better than local field changes with GOES peak X-ray flux. The strongest longitudinal field and flux changes occurred in flares observed close to the limb. We estimate the change of Lorentz force associated with each flare and find that this is large enough in some cases to power seismic waves. We find that longitudinal field decreases would likely outnumber increases at all parts of the solar disk within $65^{\circ}$ of disk-center, as in our observations, if photospheric field tilts increase during flares as predicted by Hudson et al.