Lord Kelvin Research Articles

Demonstration of efficient Thomson cooler by electronic phase transition.

In the 1850s, Lord Kelvin predicted the existence of a thermoelectric cooling effect inside a whole material (the Thomson effect) according to thermodynamics1, in addition to the Peltier effect that enables cooling at the junction between dissimilar materials. However, the Thomson effect is usually negligible (ΔT/T < 2%) in conventional thermoelectric materials because the entropy change in charge carriers is fairly small2, leading to the guiding principles for advancing thermoelectric cooling to be based on the framework of the Peltier effect and that the figure of merit ZT should be maximized to optimize performance. Here, we demonstrate a Thomson-effect-enhanced thermoelectric cooler using a large Thomson coefficient (τ) induced by the direct manipulation of charge entropy through an electronic phase transition in YbInCu4. The devices achieve a steady temperature span (ΔT) of >5 K from T = 38 K. Our findings suggest not only another approach to advance thermoelectric coolers in addition to improving ZT but also technologically opens opportunities for solid-state cryogenic cooling applications.

On the role of brilliant blunders in physics

Abstract Even the greatest scientists have made some serious blunders. This paper on brilliant blunders in physics concerns the evolution of the Earth, of stars and of the Universe as a whole. It explores and analyses major errors committed by such luminaries as Lord Kelvin, Fred Hoyle and Albert Einstein. The paper scrutinises the various types of blunders and attempts to explain how they occurred. It argues that blunders are not only inevitable, but also an integral component of the advancement of science. “Brilliant blunders” in particular can be the portals to discoveries.

Experimental investigation of Lord Kelvin’s isentropic thermoelastic cooling and heating expression for tensile bars in two engineering alloys

ABSTRACT Solids change temperature when rapidly and elastically stressed. The effect proposed by W. Thomson, who was ennobled as Lord Kelvin, is adiabatic thermoelastic cooling or heating depending on the sign of the stress. A highly sensitive radiometrically calibrated, cooled infrared camera was employed to measure temperatures both decreasing and increasing. Temperature measurements made from the reversible, elastic part of the stress–strain curve during rapid uniaxial tensile loading and unloading were investigated. The quasi-isentropic cooling temperature from the stress loading curve is recovered by heating after the specimen fractures when the load is released. These measurements establish for the first-time isentropic temperature recovery. The materials tested are an AISI 4340 steel and an aluminium 2024 alloy. Measurements of the stress cooling are − 0.65 ± 0.05 K/GPa for steel and − 1.8 ± 0.3 K/GPa for aluminium alloy. The thermoelastic heating is − 1.2 ± 0.3 K/GPa for steel and − 1.8 ± 0.2 K/GPa for aluminium. These values are compared to Thomson’s theoretical thermoelastic prediction; comparisons are also made to equations of state tables. The experimental values are below theoretical predictions. The quasi-isentropic, elastic part of the temperature change is fully recovered after extensive plastic deformation by the fracture stress release wave.

Magnetic-free chiral eigenmode spectroscopy for simultaneous sensitive measurement of optical rotary dispersion and circular dichroism

Chirality, defined by Lord Kelvin, refers to the geometric symmetry property of an object that cannot be superposed onto its mirror image using rotations and translations. The material’s chirality can be probed with light as the optical activity: optical rotary dispersion (ORD) and circular dichroism (CD). It is still challenging to yield extremely sensitive ORD and CD for very weak chirality and measure both simultaneously. Cavity ringdown polarimetry has been reported to improve ORD detection sensitivity with the absence of equally important CD signature, at the price of high cavity finesse near 400, frequency-locking sophistication, and large magnetic field. Here, we report a unique recipe to demonstrate the simultaneous measurement of ORD and the CD by separately observing the chiral eigenmode spectra from a bowtie optical cavity with a finesse about 30, without resorting to frequency locking or magnetic field. We obtain a sensitivity of ∼2.7×10-3deg/Hz\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\sim 2.7\ imes 10^{-3} \ ext {deg}/\\sqrt{\ ext {Hz}}$$\\end{document} for ORD, ∼8.1×10-6/Hz\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\sim 8.1 \ imes 10^{-6} /\\sqrt{\ ext {Hz}}$$\\end{document} for CD, and a spectral resolution of 0.04pm\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$0.04~\ ext {pm}$$\\end{document} within a millisecond-scale measurement. We present a cost-effective yet ultrasensitive account for chiral chromatography, the conformational dynamics and chiroptical analysis of biological samples which particularly exhibit weak and narrow spectral signals.

Lord Kelvin and the Kelvin Wake

Lord Kelvin and the Kelvin Wake

Lord Kelvin, the Coldest Possible Temperature, and the Age of the Earth

Lord Kelvin, the Coldest Possible Temperature, and the Age of the Earth

Educational problems in electrochemical thermodynamics

This article reviews educational problems of electrochemical thermodynamics required as introduction to any electrochemistry-related course. Specifically, the most important, electromotive force (EMF) equation, – is generally derived from Guggenheim’s formulation of electrochemical potential. For this aim the more general equation for equilibrium between phases is introduced. Special attention is given to the measurement of electrode potential. Potential drop across metal|metal contacts, usually displayed in potential profiles of electrochemical cells, can be excluded from them. The conclusion is based on Lord Kelvin’s formulation of the case, when metals are in contact, as “metallic zero”. Concerning absolute potentials, for the cases when the electrode material does not participate in electrochemical reaction, it can be calculated from the Gibbs free energy of the corresponding chemical reaction occurring in solution. Accordingly, the absolute hydrogen electrode potential is determined by thermodynamics of H+/H2 reaction.

A theory of pitch for the hydrodynamic properties of molecules, helices, and achiral swimmers at low Reynolds number.

We present a theory for pitch, a matrix property that is linked to the coupling of rotational and translational motion of rigid bodies at low Reynolds numbers. The pitch matrix is a geometric property of objects in contact with a surrounding fluid, and it can be decomposed into three principal axes of pitch and their associated moments of pitch. The moments of pitch predict the translational motion in a direction parallel to each pitch axis when the object is rotated around that axis and can be used to explain translational drift, particularly for rotating helices. We also provide a symmetrized boundary element model for blocks of the resistance tensor, allowing calculation of the pitch matrix for arbitrary rigid bodies. We analyze a range of chiral objects, including chiral molecules and helices. Chiral objects with a Cn symmetry axis with n > 2 show additional symmetries in their pitch matrices. We also show that some achiral objects have non-vanishing pitch matrices, and we use this result to explain recent observations of achiral microswimmers. We also discuss the small but non-zero pitch of Lord Kelvin's isotropic helicoid.

Two-Dimensional Chiral Metasurfaces Obtained by Geometrically Simple Meta-atom Rotations.

Two-dimensional chiral metasurfaces seem to contradict Lord Kelvin's geometric definition of chirality since they can be made to coincide by performing rotational operations. Nevertheless, most planar chiral metasurface designs often use complex meta-atom shapes to create flat versions of three-dimensional helices, although the visual appearance does not improve their chiroptical response but complicates their optimization and fabrication due to the resulting large parameter space. Here we present one of the geometrically simplest two-dimensional chiral metasurface platforms consisting of achiral dielectric rods arranged in a square lattice. Chirality is created by rotating the individual meta-atoms, making their arrangement chiral and leading to chiroptical responses that are stronger or comparable to more complex designs. We show that resonances depending on the arrangement are robust against geometric variations and behave similarly in experiments and simulations. Finally, we explain the origin of chirality and behavior of our platform by simple considerations of the geometric asymmetry and gap size.

Position

The authors return to the points made in their article published in the inaugural edition of this journal to expand upon recommendations to healthcare industry leadership regarding electrical power security. If best practice is to be data driven, then healthcare executives can take action by funding front-line experts to participate in the United States standards system as a user-interest to assure best practice has been discovered by a balance of interests. As of yet, there is no standard approach for developing resilience metrics for hospitals in Italy, in the European Union, or the United States. When that condition is present, then leaders and managers will default to federal agencies or the market itself – an imperfect taskmaster. Engineers learn from failures, but they do not like to learn the hard way. Perhaps artificial intelligence will assist this journey in reconciling the competing requirements of safety and economy in healthcare facilities. In any case, best practice discovery should rest upon the foundation of data recommended by Lord Kelvin.

How can we turn heat into useful energy using nanotechnology?

In 1821, the German physicist Thomas Seebeck made a groundbreaking discovery that revealed the direct conversion of heat energy into electricity. He did so by bringing two different metals together and holding one end heated and the other end cooled. This process is famously known as the Seebeck effect. William Thomson, a British physicist later known as Lord Kelvin, further developed the concept of thermoelectric circuits and introduced the idea of a temperature-dependent voltage in a circuit made of two dissimilar metals. Lord Kelvin’s contribution to the field of thermoelectricity paved the way for various applications in temperature sensors, power generators, refrigeration, and cooling systems.

Topological solitons in chiral liquid crystals

ABSTRACT Topological solitons are quasi-particles of field deformations that are topologically nontrivial. Conceptualised by celebrated mathematicians and scientists including Carl Friedrich Gauss, Lord Kelvin, and Tony Skyrme, the ideas of knots, topology, and solitons have found a wealth of experimental embodiments in chiral liquid crystals in recent years. This is largely due to the exceptional capacity of the material for stabilising, characterising, and controlling topological solitons. In this review, I report the recent progress in realising and characterising topological solitons in chiral liquid crystals. Following the homotopy classification, I begin with the 1D twist walls and subsequently introduce 2D skyrmions and skyrmion bags, followed by 3D Hopf solitons including both hopfions and heliknotons. Physical properties of topological solitons are discussed, which include stability, soliton–soliton interaction, field-controlled transformation, field-activated dynamics, and crystalline self-assembly. Finally, the review ends by illustrating how liquid-crystal solitons can provide insights into topological solitons in other physical systems, and perspectives of future studies on the subject. The purpose of this review is to provide a fundamental overview of topological solitons in chiral liquid crystals.

A review on the hypotheses leading to the creation of quantum mechanics

On April 27, 1900, the famous British physicist William Thomson (Baron Kelvin) delivered a speech entitled "The Dark Clouds of the Nineteenth Century on the Theory of Heat and Photodynamics" at the Royal Society. In his speech, he pointed out that, in the "edifice of physics" based on force and heat, there were two hypotheses that could not be solved at that time. One was the ether medium and the other was the black body radiation. Later, the flaws of physics were proved and the quantum mechanics and relativity were thus created. This paper introduces the origin of the concept of aether and the inference of its reality through subsequent scientific experiments. It also illustrates the emergence of a series of hypotheses such as blackbody radiation, which laid the foundation for the beginning of quantum physics.

Beltrami fields and knotted vortex structures in incompressible fluid flows

AbstractThis paper gives a survey on recent results about the existence of knotted vortex structures in incompressible fluids. This includes the proof of Lord Kelvin's conjecture on the existence of knotted vortex tubes in steady Euler flows and a new probabilistic approach to address Arnold's speculation that typical Beltrami fields should exhibit vortex lines of arbitrary topological complexity. We review the key tools to establish these results: the global approximation properties of Beltrami fields, the inverse localization principle in spectral theory, and the theory of Gaussian random Beltrami fields, which permits the introduction of probabilistic considerations in the picture. Finally, we include some applications of these techniques to other problems, such as the existence of vortex reconnections for smooth solutions of the 3D Navier–Stokes equation and the evolution of local hot spots under the heat equation.

Topologically protected vortex knots and links

In 1869, Lord Kelvin found that the way vortices are knotted and linked in an ideal fluid remains unchanged in evolution, and consequently hypothesized atoms to be knotted vortices in a ubiquitous ether, different knotting types corresponding to different types of atoms. Even though Kelvin’s atomic theory turned out incorrect, it inspired several important developments, such as the mathematical theory of knots and the investigation of knotted structures that naturally arise in physics. However, in previous studies, knotted and linked structures have been found to untie via local cut-and-paste events referred to as reconnections. Here, in contrast, we construct knots and links of non-Abelian vortices that are topologically protected in the sense that they cannot be dissolved employing local reconnections and strand crossings. Importantly, the topologically protected links are supported by a variety of physical systems such as dilute Bose-Einstein condensates and liquid crystals. We also propose a classification scheme for topological vortex links, in which two structures are considered equivalent if they differ from each other by a sequence of topologically allowed reconnections and strand crossings, in addition to the typical continuous transformations. Interestingly, this scheme produces a remarkably simple classification.

Sustainable Energy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: An Introduction to the Special Issue

At the end of the 19th century, the field of physics was considered nearly complete, encouraging triumphal statements by some of the most eminent physicists of the day, for instance, "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement (William Thompson, Baron Kelvin of Largs). Only a few random clouds troubled this bright horizon, for instance, the vexing negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, some puzzling aspects to the photoelectric effect, and a the lack of a coherent explanation for the blackbody radiation spectrum. Nothing terribly serious, nothing that wouldn’t be mopped up eventually. In fact, the first would soon be key to Einstein’s revolutionary special theory of relativity, the second would win him the Nobel prize in physics, and the third, in the able hands of Max Planck, would crack open the door to the paradigm-shattering quantum world. Indeed, every moment is the end of physics or its beginning-–depending on one’s curiosity. Viewed through the lens of Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, physics’ sudden turnabout was to be expected. Whenever experts consider a field complete, beware and be amused, for it will likely erupt in revolution. This is because the nature of knowledge itself guarantees scientific paradigms will invariably germinate the seeds of their own destructions. They must. When a paradigm is established, it is encumbent upon scientists to explore it as fully as possible, to extend its domain to the fullest possible extent.

Bedeviled: A Shadow History of Demons in Science

Bedeviled: A Shadow History of Demons in Science

A theoretical calculation of the cosmological constant based on a mechanical model of vacuum

Lord Kelvin believed that the electromagnetic aether must also generate gravity. Presently, we have no methods to determine the density of the electromagnetic aether, or we say the Ω(1) substratum. Thus, we also suppose that vacuum is filled with another kind of continuously distributed substance, which may be called the Ω(2) substratum. Based on a theorem of V. Fock on the mass tensor of a fluid, the contravariant energy-momentum tensors of the Ω(1) and Ω(2) substrata are established. Quasi-static solutions of the gravitational field equations in vacuum are obtained. Based on an assumption, relationships between the contravariant energy-momentum tensors of the Ω(1) and Ω(2) substrata and the contravariant metric tensor are obtained. Thus, the cosmological constant is calculated theoretically. The Ω(1) and Ω(2) substrata may be a possible candidate of the dark energy. According to the theory of vacuum mechanics, only those energy-momentum tensors of discrete or continuously distributed sinks in the Ω(0) substratum are permitted to act as the source terms in the generalized Einstein's equations . Thus, the zero-point energy of electromagnetic fields is not qualified for a source term in the generalized Einstein's equations. Some people believed that all kinds of energies should act as source terms in the Einstein's equations. It may be this unwarranted belief that leads to the cosmological constant problem. The mass density of theΩ(1) and Ω(2) substrata is equivalent to that of around 3 protons contained in a box with a volume of 1 cubic metre.

The Fluid Discontinuity Theory

Theoretical Physics is perhaps the only class of philosophies that has really enhanced and evolved itself to a lot of extent seeking clues towards the ultimate nature of reality. Stretching from the Theory of General Relativity and Quantum Physics, it’s been diversified with quite peculiar answers to multiple deep facets. However, still there is a significant fragment of Physics which is yet to be developed in that theoretical frame of system where the mathematical analysis turns in a more definitive role and thus, holds the intersection of certain other branches of the field and this area is Fluid Dynamics or Hydrodynamics. Although there is no question over some forsooth brilliant contributions in the regime but still, this discovery will deal with a nonpareil strand in order to fill some gaps which will determine new findings to lead the coming times much exclusively through the realm. The proposed discovery in this paper, being chronicle on the most primordial basis; is about quilting the distinction of waves as a whole in the fluid being in layered form and its impact via penetration of mass into those in form of respective disturbance in its fabrication of fundamental geometry. In other words, the idea proposed is about investigating and evolving the understanding of fluid discontinuity in distinctive extents forming geometrical patterns which is the idea that has also been undertaken to insights by some of the greatest Philosophers, Physicists, and Mathematicians of the last two centuries from Helmholtz to Lord Kelvin to Einstein but unfortunately it could not be attained in a full turn of deeper understanding in terms of Theoretical and Mathematical evolution as attempted by all these greatest forefathers of Sciences. In order to extract the idea with the overlap of modern mathematical integration, the entire formation of the defined system is taken into the account by establishing geometrical interpretations which will also develop more protean insights into the field and fill many further gaps in the classical regime of the Dynamics and gives a modern turn to it. The fabrication of the idea is systematically unfolded in terms of both Theoretical &amp; Mathematical engagements concerning to the respective structures taking place in form of different theories partaking in an evolutionary methodology.

Early application of kinetic theory of gases to star clusters

This is a case of working by analogy to apply successful work from one field, the kinetic theory of gases, to another field, the distribution of stars in globular clusters. The origin of the analogy lies in Henri Poincaré reading a vague suggestion by Lord Kelvin and recognizing the interest and potential value of this suggestion. The result is the application of mechanics to the dynamics of clusters with very many stars. A good idea, even a very clever good idea, still takes significant work to elaborate in all its implications. Here we see assumptions that lead to partial success in providing a relation between the density of stars in a cluster and the distance from the center. Partial success motivated work using assumptions that were less restrictive. We follow the assumptions and work through 1916, when work paused for many years.