Longer Commute Times Research Articles

A Bad Commute: Travel Time to Work Predicts Teacher Turnover and Other Workplace Outcomes

Research suggests that longer commute times may increase employee turnover probabilities by increasing stress and reducing job attachment and embeddedness. Using administrative data from a midsized urban school district, we test whether teachers with longer commute times are more likely to transfer schools or exit the district. Both descriptively and in regression results employing multiple fixed effects, we find that teachers with longer commutes are more likely to transfer schools within the district. Regression results show that each 5-minute increase in one-way commute time predicts an increase in transfer probability of 0.8 to 1.0 percentage points over most of the commute time distribution. We also find evidence that teachers with the longest commutes (i.e., 40+ minutes each way) have higher district exit probabilities. Moreover, teachers with longer commute times are absent from work more frequently and receive lower observation ratings. We discuss potential implications for local human resources policy and practice.

Employment deconcentration and spatial dispersion in metropolitan areas: Consequences for commuting patterns

There is interest in understanding which characteristics of metropolitan areas impact the length of time or distance residents spend commuting. We utilize two measures recently introduced to the urban literature capturing distinct dimensions of employment decentralization –the level of employment deconcentration and employment spatial dispersion in metropolitan areas – to assess how they are related to commuting patterns across metropolitan areas. These two measures of urban/metropolitan spatial structure avoid challenges in identifying “job centers” and allow for a more systematic investigation of how employment decentralization affects commuting patterns. Furthermore, we detect key differences for the implications of these measures for commuting across 329 US metropolitan regions based on their population size. We find that greater employment deconcentration in very small MSAs is associated with longer commute times and distances, whereas greater employment deconcentration in large or very large MSAs is associated with shorter commutes. And whereas spatial dispersion is not related to commute times in very small MSAs, greater spatial dispersion is associated with longer commutes in very large MSAs. This study also shows that the spatial pattern of employment in regions, captured by these new measures, is associated with the proportion of very short and very long duration commutes.

Combining disparate surveys across time to study satisfaction with life: the effects of study context, sampling method, and transport attributes

Satisfaction with life is a self-reported measure of the quality of life that has become a critical societal indicator extensively used for the evaluation and comparison of a wide range of trends and policies. This study fuses five cross-sectional travel surveys conducted from 1992 to 2018 across various geographical locations in California. Using the fused sample, we develop generalized ordered logit models to examine the effects of demographic characteristics, travel-related attributes, general and transport-related attitudinal variables, and context-control variables on individuals’ self-reported measures of life satisfaction. We find that longer commute times, mobility limitations, and a tendency to see travel as a waste of time are negatively associated with life satisfaction. To enable the use of disparate cross-sectional survey data, we incorporate context-control variables into the models. We find that life satisfaction appears to be increasing as GDP per capita increases. Among employed people, the macro-scale unemployment rate positively influences their life satisfaction. Interestingly, all else equal, we find that online opinion panel respondents have lower life satisfaction relative to respondents from other sampling methods (mainly address-based sampling), a finding that should be considered in future research using these sampling methods. Overall, this study provides a unique look at life satisfaction within a transport context, while providing an example of fusing small-scale survey datasets to study longitudinal, domain-specific, influences on variables like subjective well-being.

Deep Reinforcement Learning based Intelligent Traffic Control System

Metropolitan cities are witnessing enormous surge in everyday traffic resulting in delays, congestions and longer commute times. This rise is the consequence of the ever-increasing population and the corresponding demand of vehicles. However, present traffic control systems are not reciprocating this increasing demand. Upgrades in the form of real-time intelligent systems are necessary. Our solution to this problem is the formulation of a deep reinforcement learning traffic control system that actively monitors the traffic environment and makes precise predictions. These predictions in the form of traffic light phases provide for the most efficient flow of traffic through an intersection. Using deep Q-learning networks, we present an enhanced solution to the problem that reduces the average waiting time of vehicles in the environment by about 60%. We compare and evaluate multiple novel neural network architectures and demonstrate their results in our custom environment. We also account for variety of vehicles on road and their nuances, to accurately depict a realistic environment.

Suburbanization of Transport Poverty

Many cities have undergone spatial redistributions of low-income populations from central to suburban neighborhoods over the past several decades. A potential negative impact of these trends is that low-income populations are concentrating in more automobile-oriented areas, resulting in increased barriers to daily travel and activity participation, particularly for those who are unable to afford a private vehicle. Accordingly, the objective of this article is to analyze the links between increasing sociospatial inequalities, transport disadvantage, and adverse travel behavior outcomes. This is examined first from a theoretical perspective and second via a spatiotemporal analysis for the Toronto region from 1991 to 2016. Findings show that many suburban areas in Toronto are not only declining in socioeconomic status but are also suffering from increased barriers to daily travel evidenced by longer commute times and decreasing activity participation rates, relative to central neighborhoods. Because of these adverse effects, this evidence further supports the need for progressive planning and policy aimed at curbing continuing trends of suburbanization of poverty while also improving levels of transport accessibility in the suburbs.

Longer commutes are associated with increased human exposure to tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are a class of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) used as flame retardants, plasticizers, and anti-foaming agents. Due to stringent flammability standards in vehicles and the ability of OPEs to migrate out of end-use products, elevated concentrations of OPEs have been found in car dust samples around the world. As many residents of Southern California spend a significant amount of time in their vehicles, there is potential for increased exposure to OPEs associated with longer commute times. As approximately 70% of the University of California, Riverside’s undergraduate population commutes, the objective of this study was to use silicone wristbands to monitor personal exposure to OPEs and determine if exposure was associated with commute time in a subset of these students. Participants were asked to wear wristbands for five continuous days and complete daily surveys about the amount of time spent commuting. Data were then used to calculate a participant-specific total commute score. Components of Firemaster 550 (triphenyl phosphate, or TPHP, and isopropylated triaryl phosphate isomers) and Firemaster 600 (TPHP and tert-butylated triaryl phosphate isomers) – both widely used commercial flame retardant formulations – were strongly correlated with other OPEs detected within participant wristbands. Moreover, the concentration of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) was significantly correlated with the concentration of several Firemaster 500 components and tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP). Finally, out of all OPEs measured, TDCIPP was significantly and positively correlated with total commute score, indicating that longer commutes are associated with increased human exposure to TDCIPP. Overall, our findings raise concerns about the potential for chronic TDCIPP exposure within vehicles and other forms of transportation, particularly within densely populated and traffic-congested areas such as Southern California.

Who doesn’t mind waiting? Examining the relationships between waiting attitudes and person- and travel-related attributes

Waiting, whether for services, for someone, or for something, is an inescapable part of life. This paper addresses a gap in the waiting time literature by examining previously sparsely studied relationships between individual- and travel-related characteristics and attitudes toward waiting using a revealed preference dataset of Northern California commuters (N = 2617). Correlational analyses, followed by a trivariate seemingly unrelated regression equations model, are developed for three waiting attitudinal constructs: general tolerance toward waiting, and attitudes toward equipped and expected waiting. Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, time use perceptions and preferences, personality traits, multitasking attitudes (polychronicity), commute preferences and expectations, and general attitudes (e.g. pro-technology) are all seen to have significant effects on waiting attitudes. As this survey was executed on commuters, it also facilitates a unique simultaneous exploration of travel and wait time attributes, time uses that are often similarly viewed in day-to-day life. From this perspective, we see that longer commute times and distances are correlated with negative attitudes toward waiting, while commuters with pro-transit, pro-density, and pro-active transportation attitudes tend to have positive attitudes toward waiting. Additionally, we see that those with preferences for multitasking in general or at their jobs can tolerate waiting better. Overall, this study constitutes a distinctive contribution to the waiting time literature, capitalizing on a rich dataset to make important connections between related time uses and a multitude of other variables—key among them polychronicity, with its potential ability to reduce the negative perception and experience of waiting. Findings from this study may also benefit transportation and other service providers by facilitating an understanding of how various consumer groups/demographics view waiting, thus enabling providers to better cater to diverse needs/populations.

How commuting affects subjective wellbeing

Commuting between home and work is routinely performed by workers and any wellbeing impacts of commuting will consequently affect a large proportion of the population. This paper presents findings from analyses of the impact of commuting (time and mode) on multiple aspects of Subjective Well-Being (SWB), including: satisfaction with life overall and the SWB sub-domains of job satisfaction, satisfaction with leisure time availability and self-reported health. Measures of strain and mental health (GHQ-12) are also examined. Six waves of individual-level panel data from Understanding Society (2009/10 to 2014/15) are analysed, providing a sample of over 26,000 workers living in England. Associations between commuting and SWB are identified, paying particular attention to those arising from individual changes in commuting circumstances over the six waves. It is found that longer commute times are associated with lower job and leisure time satisfaction, increased strain and poorer mental health. The strongest association is found for leisure time satisfaction. Despite these negative associations with the SWB sub-domains, longer commute times were not associated with lower overall life satisfaction (except where individuals persisted with them over all six waves). Workers in England appear to be successful in balancing the negative aspects of commuting against the wider benefits, e.g. access to employment, earnings and housing. Differences amongst selected population sub-groups are also examined. The job satisfaction of younger adults and lower income groups are not found to be negatively associated with longer commute times; longer commute times are more strongly negatively associated with the job satisfaction of women compared to men. With respect to mode of transport, walking to work is associated with increased leisure time satisfaction and reduced strain. The absence of the commute, via working from home, is associated with increased job satisfaction and leisure time satisfaction. Overall, the study indicates that shorter commute times and walkable commutes can contribute to improved SWB—particularly through the release of leisure time. But life satisfaction overall will only be maintained if the benefits of undertaking the commute (earnings and satisfactory housing/employment) are not compromised.

“For me it is always like half an hour”: Exploring the acceptable travel time concept in the US and European contexts

Milakis et al. (2015b) explored the acceptable travel time concept as a possible factor in the travel and destination decision-making process. These researchers employed both theory and methods triangulation to assess the validity of this concept. Results from interviews with 20 subjects in Berkeley, CA supported the acceptable travel time concept. In this paper, the US study is replicated in Europe (Delft, The Netherlands) to further explore the validity of the acceptable travel time concept, compare results between Delft and Berkeley, and to identify possible factors influencing the acceptable travel time. Results of this study offer support for the validity of the acceptable travel time concept. The subjects in Delft appeared to be less satisfied with longer commute times than the subjects in Berkeley. Urban, transport as well as sociocultural factors might explain this variation in acceptable travel times.

‘A Fantasy to Get Employment Around the Area’: Long Commutes and Resident Health in an Outer Urban Master-Planned Estate

The Selandra Rise master-planned estate (MPE) in Melbourne’s south-east growth corridor was designed to create a “healthy and engaged community” through the provision of parks, physical activity opportunities and community facilities. A 5 year longitudinal study researched the impact on residents. Over one third of residents spent 2 to 3 h per day commuting and high levels of dissatisfaction with commutes were found. Longer commute times were associated with poor physical activity and weight outcomes. The paper concludes that provisions for health and wellbeing within an MPE are insufficient when opportunities for local employment are limited and broader locational, connectivity and transport disadvantages are not addressed.

Obesity Prevention In Urban Settings: Creating Healthy Environments

The Center for the Promotion of Healthy Lifestyles and Obesity Prevention, housed in the College of Health and Human Development, at California State University, Fullerton promotes interdisciplinary research and community outreach in areas related to children’s health and weight management. Two studies focusing on the built environment are showcased. The first study, “Commuting Patterns and Obesity Risk” demonstrates that students with longer commute times are more likely to have a body mass index (BMI) over 25, which is considered overweight. The second study, “Increasing Physical Activity with a Mobile Physical Activity Unit” turned a parking lot into a playground. This was created to provide children in Santa Ana, one of the densest cities in Orange County, California, a place to play. The built environment can have a profound effect on physical activity and if given the opportunity, is important to address in the design stages for the health of our communities.

Where the Jobs Are: Employment Access and Crime Patterns in Cleveland

Economists and criminologists have long tried to establish linkages between job markets and crime. Most prior research, however, used large areas such as the whole nation, states, metropolitan areas, or counties to identify job markets. Such large units are heterogeneous, and there may be more variation within such units than between them. This research uses two GIS–based methods to measure job access across census tracts in Cleveland, Ohio in 1990. The first is a ratio of jobs to resident workers (JR ratio) within catchment areas defined by reasonable commuting times. The second approach is a gravity–based job–accessibility index, which accounts for job competition among workers and longer commute times for public transit riders. Controlling for spatial autocorrelation, we find consistent inverse relationships between gravity–based job accessibility and crime rates. These relationships tend to be stronger for economic crimes than for crimes of violence.

What Is the Effect of Commute Time on Employment?: Analysis of Spatial Patterns in New York Metropolitan Area

Many planners argue that a key reason that residents of central-city and urban neighborhoods do not work is because of a lack of proximity to employment opportunities. The effect of travel time on employment probabilities for residents of urban areas was quantified while accounting for the fact that many are not employed. Data from the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey ( n = 7,942 working-age individuals) were used to quantify the effect of commute time on employment for residents of the greater New York metropolitan area to test whether longer commute times are associated with lower employment probabilities. First, an ordinary least-squares regression model that explains travel times to work was estimated for those who work. This model was then used to predict the commute times by automobile and transit for all respondents in the New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island consolidated metropolitan statistical area, regardless of employment status, on the basis of various personal characteristics including race and spatial attributes. Second, a binary probit model was used to estimate the employment probability on the basis of various personal and household characteristics as well as the predicted commute time. The results for work-eligible individuals showed that urban neighborhoods are characterized by a proportionately larger black population (25.1 percent of the urban population), with a relatively lower employment level (71.4 percent), longer average commutes despite the higher job density in urban areas, and relatively lower incomes. Central-city and urban residents reported travel times significantly different from those of their suburban counterparts. The commute times of urban and suburban residents with private vehicles were about equal and averaged 24 min, but urban transit commuters had an average commute of 40 min and suburban transit commuters had an average commute of about 60 min. Irrespective of race, the estimated employment probability for urban residents reliant on transit for commuting was substantially lower than that for urbanites who use automobiles. The findings support the need for policies to improve the accessibility and reliability of transit and to achieve a jobs-housing balance in central-city areas.