Long-term Salinization Research Articles

Incorporating biotic phosphorus-acquisition strategies into soil phosphorus transformation under long-term salinization in a tidal wetland

Tidal wetland plants can maintain high primary productivity under salinization, even with low phosphorus (P) availability. However, little is known about how they adapt to salinization-induced ecosystem P limitation over time. We established mesocosms using tidal freshwater wetland soils and the salt-tolerant plant Cyperus malaccensis and subjected them to short-term (6 months) and long-term (3.5 years) salinization. Overall, short-term salinization did not change plant or microbial biomass nitrogen/P ratios, whereas long-term salinization increased both, indicating that short-term salinization did not alter ecosystem P limitation, but long-term salinization exacerbated it. Concurrently, short-term salinization reduced the moderately labile inorganic P (Pi) pool, whereas long-term salinization also reduced the hydrolyzable organic P (Po) and primary mineral P pools. During both short- and long-term salinization, moderately labile Pi mobilization exhibited a negative correlation with Fe sulfide concentration and a positive correlation with Fe(III) concentrations. These results suggested that both short- and long-term salinization obtained P through abiotic P-acquisition strategies. Mobilization of the primary mineral P pool and hydrolyzable Po pools was negatively linked to root arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) biomass and soil alkaline phosphomonoesterase (ALP) activity, respectively. This indicated that long-term salinization acquired P via biotic P-acquisition strategies. Specifically, soil microorganisms increased fungi predominance and thereby increased ALP activity to convert hydrolyzable Po, while tidal wetland plants enhanced root AMF associations to release carboxylate to transform primary mineral P. Overall, our results highlight that abiotic P-acquisition strategies could offset the ecosystem P limitation during short-term salinization, whereas biotic P-acquisition strategies play a more important role in soil P transformation under long-term salinization. Through biotic P-acquisition, tidal wetland ecosystems can maintain high plant primary productivity through biotic P-acquisition even under P-limited conditions, exhibiting increased resilience to sea-level rise.

A novel remote sensing monitoring index of salinization based on three-dimensional feature space model and its application in the Yellow River Delta of China

Previous studies were mostly conducted based on two-dimensional feature space to monitor salinization, while studies on dense long-term salinization monitoring based on three-dimensional feature space have not been reported. Based on Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI images and three-dimensional feature space method, this study introduced six typical salinization surface parameters, including NDVI, salinity index, MSAVI, surface albedo, iron oxide index, wetness index to construct eight different feature space monitoring index. The optimal soil salinization monitoring index model was proposed base on field observed data and then the evolution process of salinization in Yellow River Delta (YRD) were analyzed and revealed during 1984–2022. The salinization monitoring index model of MSAVI-Albedo-IFe2O3 feature space had the highest accuracy with R2 = 0.93 and RMSE = 0.678g/kg. The spatial distribution of salinization in YRD showed an increasing trend from inland southwest to coastal northeast and the salinization intensity showed an increasing trend during 1984–2022 due to the implements of agricultural measures such as planting salt-tolerant crops, microbial remediation and fertility improvement. The rate of salinization deterioration in the northeast part was greater than others. Zones of salinization improvement were mainly located in cultivated land of the southwest parts.

Declines of methylmercury along a salinity gradient in a low-lying coastal wetland ecosystem at South Carolina, USA

Wetlands are widely regarded as biogeochemical hotspots of highly toxic methylmercury (MeHg), mainly mediated by sulfate-reducing bacteria. In low-lying coastal wetlands, sea level rise, a phenomenon caused by global climate change, is slowly degrading numerous healthy freshwater forested wetlands into salt-degraded counterparts with a nickname “ghost forests”, and eventually converting them to saltmarshes. However, little is known about the changes of mercury (Hg) methylation, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification along the forest-to-saltmarsh gradient. Here, we conducted extensive field sampling in three wetland states (healthy forested wetlands, salt-degraded forested wetlands, and saltmarsh) along a salinity gradient (from 0 to 9.4 ppt) in Winyah Bay, South Carolina, USA. We found that in our study wetland systems the saltmarshes had the lowest levels of both total Hg and MeHg in sediments and biota, as compared to healthy forested wetlands and saltwater-degraded ghost forests. Our results suggest that the slow conversion of forested wetland to saltmarsh could reduce net MeHg production in our study wetland systems, which we hypothesized that could be attributed to increased sulfate reduction and excessive buildup of sulfide in sediment that inhibits microbial Hg methylation, and/or reduced canopy density and increased photodegradation of MeHg. However, it should be noted that biogeochemical MeHg responses to salinity changes may be site-specific and we urge more similar studies in other wetland systems along a salinity gradient. Therefore, long-term salinization of coastal wetlands and the slow conversion of forests to marshes could decrease long-term exposure of toxic MeHg levels in coastal food webs that are similar to our system, and ultimately reduce human exposure to this neurotoxin.

Geochemical evolution and tracing of groundwater salinization using different ionic ratios, multivariate statistical and geochemical modeling approaches in a typical semi-arid basin

The vulnerability of semi-arid basin aquifers to long-term salinization due to the dissolution of groundwater chemical constituents is a major global problem. Despite this, resilient techniques of tracing the sources of groundwater salinization in semi-arid basin aquifers are still evolving due to the aquifer complexities. This study proves the effectiveness of the use of different ionic ratios, multivariate statistical, and geochemical modeling approaches to understand groundwater evolution and trace salinization in the semi-arid Pru Basin of Ghana. The basin is homogeneously composed of argillaceous sediments of the Oti/Pendjari Group of the Voltaian Supergroup. A total of 81 samples from hand-dug wells and boreholes within the Pru Formation of the Oti/Pendjari Group in the basin were collected for this study. Quantitative analysis of the data shows that the abundance of major ions follows the order: Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ and Cl− > HCO3− > SO42−. The groundwater evolved from Na-HCO3, Na-HCO3-Cl, Na-Ca-HCO3 to Na-Mg-HCO3 water types in a decreasing order of abundance. Calculated meteoric genesis index (r2) indicates the dominance of deep meteoric water percolation effects on groundwater chemistry. Groundwater chemistry is principally controlled by water-rock interaction, ion exchange reactions, weathering (carbonate and silicate), salinization, and anthropogenic activities. Different ionic ratio plots and spatial distribution maps reveal the prevalence of salinization in the aquifer system, especially around the southwestern part of the basin. Revelle index assessment of the groundwater salinization level indicates that about 19.8% of the groundwater samples with RI values >0.5 is influenced by salinization. The groundwater salinization results from saline water intrusion from adjacent aquifers, mixing effects, ion exchange reactions, water-rock interaction, and anthropogenic activities. The geochemical modeling involving thermodynamic calculation of mineral saturation indices in PHREEQC indicates that groundwater is largely saturated with respect to majority of the carbonate and silicate mineral phases.

Catabolic Activity and Structural Diversity of Bacterial Community in Soil Covered by Halophytic Vegetation.

The catabolic activity and structural diversity of soil bacteria covered by five different halophytic vegetation types in the Yellow River Delta affected by long-term salinization were studied using Biolog-Eco technology. The result showed that soil quality, the diversity, and catabolic activity of the bacterial community of mildly salt-tolerant vegetation (Imperata cylindrical (L.) Beauv. and Apocynum venetum L.) were significantly higher than those of the bacterial community of highly salt-tolerant vegetation (Suaeda salsa (L.) Pall., Aeluropus sinensis (D.) Tzvel.), while these values were lowest for bacterial communities in bare land. The operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and diversity indexes of soil bacteria covered by Aeluropus sinensis were higher than those of soil bacteria covered by other types of vegetation, while those of soil bacteria covered by bare land were lowest. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the carbon source utilization capacity of the soil bacterial communities showed that organic acids, polymers, and amino acids were sensitive carbon sources that enabled study of the diversity of carbon metabolic functions in soil bacterial communities. And redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that D-galacturonic was significantly positively correlated with Verrucomicrobia, which further demonstrated the effect of organic acid carbon sources on metabolic functional diversity of soil bacterial communities in the Yellow River Delta.

Predicting attenuation of salinized surface- and groundwater-resources from legacy energy development in the Prairie Pothole Region

Oil and gas (energy) development in the Williston Basin, which partly underlies the Prairie Pothole Region in central North America, has helped meet U.S. energy demand for decades. Historical handling and disposal practices of saline wastewater co-produced during energy development resulted in salinization of surface and groundwater at numerous legacy energy sites. Thirty years of monitoring (1988–2018) at Goose Lake, which has been producing since the 1960s, documents long-term spatial and temporal changes in water quality from legacy energy development. Surface water quality was highly variable and decoupled from changes in groundwater quality, likely due to annual and regional climatic fluctuations. Therefore, changes in surface water-quality were not considered a reliable indicator of subsurface chloride migration. However, chloride concentrations in monitoring wells near wastewater sources exhibited systematic temporal reductions allowing for estimates of the time required for natural attenuation of groundwater to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency acute and chronic chloride toxicity benchmarks and a local background level. Point attenuation rates differed based on sediment type (outwash vs till) and yielded a range of predicted years when water-quality targets will be reached: acute – 2045 to 2113; chronic – 2069 to 2160; background – 2126 to 2275. Bulk attenuation rates from four separate years of data were used to calculate the distances chloride could migrate downgradient from the largest wastewater source. Potential distances of downgradient migration before dilution to water-quality targets decreased from 1989 to 2018: acute – 949 to 673 m; chronic – 1220 to 922 m; background – 1878 to 1525 m. Several downgradient wetlands are within these distances and will continue to receive saline contaminated groundwater for years. While these results demonstrate chloride attenuation at a legacy energy site, they also highlight the persistence of saline wastewater contamination and the need to mitigate future spills to prevent long-term salinization from energy development.

Засоленные почвы Ростовской низины (Ярославская область): морфология, генезис и динамика засоления в годовом гидрологическом цикле

Available data on salt-affected soils of the Rostov lowland in the Upper Volga region and the Nero lake basin are predominantly based on observations made in the beginning of the last century. Modern studies of potential areas of soils salinization in this region are absent. As a result of the conducted investigations considering long-term stages of the groundwater level decreasing within the area of Rostov lowland on a background of the known trends of the climate change, the question on the salinization phenomenon is still opened. Following the results of the second cycle of monitoring investigations in 2016-2017, we made an assessment of the salinization degree of the subaqual landscape on the II terrace of Nero lake. The possibility of hydromorphic solonchaks forming was shown. The factors and conditions of their forming and the relatively sus-tainable functioning in the humid climate of the southern taiga subzone were examined. The seasonal dynamics of the profile distribution of water-soluble salts, carbonates, gypsum and storage of salts in two soil pits within the impact zone of the salty spring (the former salt industry center) was revealed. To identify the long-term salinization dynamics in the Varnitsy landscape the information on water types from the salty spring, groundwater and soil extraction over a period of a hundred years of sporadic observations was analyzed. The current monitoring data indicated active salinization processes in the landscape and salts migration beyond the soil profile into the associated system of the Nero lake tributaries.

Salting our freshwater lakes.

The highest densities of lakes on Earth are in north temperate ecosystems, where increasing urbanization and associated chloride runoff can salinize freshwaters and threaten lake water quality and the many ecosystem services lakes provide. However, the extent to which lake salinity may be changing at broad spatial scales remains unknown, leading us to first identify spatial patterns and then investigate the drivers of these patterns. Significant decadal trends in lake salinization were identified using a dataset of long-term chloride concentrations from 371 North American lakes. Landscape and climate metrics calculated for each site demonstrated that impervious land cover was a strong predictor of chloride trends in Northeast and Midwest North American lakes. As little as 1% impervious land cover surrounding a lake increased the likelihood of long-term salinization. Considering that 27% of large lakes in the United States have >1% impervious land cover around their perimeters, the potential for steady and long-term salinization of these aquatic systems is high. This study predicts that many lakes will exceed the aquatic life threshold criterion for chronic chloride exposure (230 mg L-1), stipulated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in the next 50 y if current trends continue.

Elucidating the sources and mechanisms of groundwater salinization in the Ziz Basin of southeastern Morocco

In the Ziz Basin, located in arid area in southeastern Morocco, surface waters are scarce and local populations are entirely dependent on groundwater resources for drinking and irrigation. In order to evaluate the main factors controlling the origin and salinization of groundwater resources, we have investigated the chemical and stable isotope compositions of groundwater and surface water in different areas in the Ziz basin, upstream and downstream from the Hassan Addakhil dam, which is the major man-made reservoir in the basin. A large variation in water quality was observed, specifically an increase in salinity from north (upstream to the reservoir with TDS ~ 460 mg/L) to south (downstream; TDS ~ 16,000 mg/L). In the northern portion of the basin, the low saline groundwater is composed primarily of Ca2+ and Mg2+ due to dissolution of carbonate formations in the High Atlas Mountains. In contrast, the major dissolved consequents of saline waters are Cl−, SO4 2− and Na+, apparently due to dissolution of evaporite minerals (gypsum and halite). In some areas elevated nitrate contents imply anthropogenic contamination derived from local agriculture. The stable isotopes data (δ18O = −8.6 to −8.3 ‰ and δ2H = −55.7 to −53.8 ‰) indicate that the High Atlas Mountains, upstream of the reservoir constitute the major source of water to the Ziz Basin. Given that this arid basin is entirely dependent on groundwater resources, long-term salinization of groundwater in the Ziz Basin could lead to negative effects and reduction of the local agricultural productivity in addition to the degradation of drinking water quality in this region.

Specific features of the dynamics of salts in salt-affected soils subjected to long-term seasonal freezing in the south Transbaikal region

Observations over the dynamics of the freezing-thawing processes and the migration and accumulation of salts in the soils of the Ivolginsk Depression in Buryatia showed the existence of two stages in the annual cycle of salt migration: the short-term desalinization stage alternates with the long-term salinization stage. The latter stage actually combines two phases: the fall and winter phase of the migration of solutions towards the freezing front and the spring phase of the ascending migration of melt water towards the drying soil surface with further concentration of the solutions owing to evapotranspiration. The desalinization stage in the summer is only typical of the upper soil horizons because of the insufficient amount of summer precipitation; moreover, this stage is not observed every year. Thus, the salt regime of the soils of the depression is greatly affected by the seasonal soil freezing; the long-term salinization in the fall, winter, and spring seasons alternates with a short period of the leaching of salts at the end of summer.

The urban watershed continuum: evolving spatial and temporal dimensions

Urban ecosystems are constantly evolving, and they are expected to change in both space and time with active management or degradation. An urban watershed continuum framework recognizes a continuum of engineered and natural hydrologic flowpaths that expands hydrologic networks in ways that are seldom considered. It recognizes that the nature of hydrologic connectivity influences downstream fluxes and transformations of carbon, contaminants, energy, and nutrients across 4 space and time dimensions. Specifically, it proposes that (1) first order streams are largely replaced by urban infrastructure (e.g. storm drains, ditches, gutters, pipes) longitudinally and laterally within watersheds, (2) there is extensive longitudinal and lateral modification of organic carbon and nutrient retention in engineered headwaters (3) there are longitudinal downstream pulses in material and energy exports that are amplified by interactive land-use and hydrologic variability, (4) there are vertical interactions between leaky pipes and ground water that influence stream solute transport, (5) the urban watershed continuum is a transformer and transporter of materials and energy based on hydrologic residence times, and (6) temporally, there is an evolution of biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem functions as land use and urban infrastructure change over time. We provide examples from the Baltimore Ecosystem Study Long-Term Ecological (LTER) site along 4 spatiotemporal dimensions. Long-term monitoring indicates that engineered headwaters increase downstream subsidies of nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, carbon, and metals compared with undeveloped headwaters. There are increased longitudinal transformations of carbon and nitrogen from suburban headwaters to more urbanized receiving waters. Hydrologic connectivity along the vertical dimension between ground water and leaky pipes from Baltimore’s aging infrastructure elevates stream solute concentrations. Across time, there has been increased headwater stream burial, evolving stormwater management, and long-term salinization of Baltimore’s drinking water supply. Overall, an urban watershed continuum framework proposes testable hypotheses of how transport/transformation of materials and energy vary along a continuum of engineered and natural hydrologic flowpaths in space and time. Given interest in transitioning from sanitary to sustainable cities, it is necessary to recognize the evolving relationship between infrastructure and ecosystem function along the urban watershed continuum.

Genotypic differences in root and shoot growth of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) grown under different salinity levels

In water-limited areas of Tunisia, more than 30% of subsurface water used for irrigation is saline water, leading to a long-term salinization and degradation processes. To prevent the problems and to minimize the negative impact of using saline water, selection of proper germplasm as well as integrated soil and water management are essential. Understanding the diversity for salt tolerance in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) genotypes will facilitate their use in genetic improvement. Our objectives were to evaluate, in green, house-salt tolerance for 14 barley cultivars under three different salinity levels: (tap water with an Ec = 0.73 dSm(-1), tap water with 102 mM of NaCl, Ec = 10.76 dSm(-1) and tap water with 151 mM of NaCl, Ec = 15.38 dSm(-1)), and quantify genetic variation based on salt tolerance index, morphological traits, molecular and factorial analysis of correspondence (FAC). The study was conducted in a randomized complete block design arranged as a split plot. The results indicate a great genetic variability to salt tolerance among used barley genotypes. Consequently, it is possible to identify superior cultivars, and evaluate the genotypic performance under salinities conditions. In addition, results obtained were confirmed by clustering made by SSR tool on the base of DNA analysis, which is compatible with the arrangement obtained with statistical method.

Long-term salinization dynamics in irrigated soils of the Golodnaya Steppe and methods of their assessment on the basis of remote sensing data

A set of salinization maps (1983–2000) for the former Yusupov State Farm in the irrigated area of the Golodnaya Steppe (Uzbekistan) were developed with the use of aerial and satellite images taken in the early autumn season. A unified approach based on the analysis of the mottled patterns of the cotton fields was used. The soil cover of the farm consists of irrigated hydromorphic moderately saline soils with the participation of nonsaline and strongly saline soils. The long-ter m dynamics of the soil salinity were studied via superposing two or more maps for different years. It was shown that the long-term salinization dynamics could not be determined on the basis of the comparison of only two maps for different years. Maps of the trends of the salinization for the entire period of the observations, a map of the salinization dynamics showing the degree of changes in the soil salinity for the particular areas, a map of the areas with stable salinization through the entire period, and some other maps were developed. A considerable part of the investigated area was characterized by highly unstable soil salinity and active salinization-desalinization processes. The degree of the soil salinity varied from slight to strong and vice versa. For the entire period, the soils were mainly medium saline in the upper meter with a weakly expressed tendency for further salinization and a drop in the area of nonsaline and slightly saline soils.

A lake as a natural integrator of linear processes: Application to Lake Kinneret (Israel) and Lake Biwa (Japan)

The major hydrological variables that may cause long-term salinity changes in fresh water lakes are the volume of the lake, stream and/or groundwater inflows and outflows, direct rainfall, stream, groundwater, and rainfall salinity and evaporation. Measurements of these variables are usually subject to natural fluctuations and unavoidable errors of the measured data. Therefore, evaluation of the contribution of each component to the long-term salinity trends is difficult. In this work, it is shown that since salinization processes are linear, lakes are able to retain a ‘solute influx memory’, which records information about their lake–watershed–climate relationship in the past. Our objective was to test and verify a system approach method, which evaluates this ‘memory’, i.e. investigates the causes of long-term salinization processes in fresh water lakes. With this approach, a general expression is developed that represents the lake as a natural integrator of linear processes in space and time. The long-term change of the chloride concentration in the lake (representing salinity) reflects the long-term changes in each of the various past hydrological variables. The general theory of the lake as a natural integrator was tested by examination of the long-term salinity changes in Lake Kinneret, Israel, and Lake Biwa, Japan. The hydrology and salinity of both lakes are well monitored for several decades. In the analysis of Lake Kinneret, the long-term measurements of inflows, outflows and lake salinity were used to verify that the salinization mechanism follows the theory of complete mixing (system identification). In Lake Biwa the same approach was used, however, we assumed that the salinization mechanism was ‘complete mixing’, and the long-term measurements of the lake hydrology were used to investigate the reasons for increasing salinity (system detection). Since the system analysis is affected by uncertainties of the measured variables, a stochastic component was added, in order to take these uncertainties into account.

Free spermidine and spermine content in Lotus glaber under long-term salt stress

Polyamine metabolism has long been involved in plant stress responses, although physiological roles of putrescine, spermidine and spermine are still under debate. Regarding long-term salinization, it have been suggested that high titers of spermidine and/or spermine, but not putrescine, are correlated with the response of plants to salinity. In this work, we use the moderately salt tolerant glycophyte Lotus glaber as a model to test the hypothesis that free spermidine and spermine are biochemical indicators of salt stress response. For such purpose, we evaluated polyamine content in three different long-term salt stress approaches: germinating and growing seedlings under salinity, salinization of growing plants and imposition of salt stress to clone stem cuttings obtained from plants recovered from saline lowlands. Proline was also tested to evaluate if polyamines levels correlate with this compatible solute response. Results from these experiments showed a similar trend concerning higher polyamines content i.e., a salt induced a decrease of free spermidine and an increase of free spermine, in line with the idea that polyamine are biochemical indicators of salt stress. However, polyamine levels not always paralleled the accumulation of proline. These observations are discussed with regard of the putative roles reported for polyamines in plant abiotic stresses.

Rates of salinization by free convection in high-permeability sediments: insights from numerical modeling and application to the Dutch coastal area

Numerical modeling and dimensional analysis is used to study the salinization of thick, high-permeability aquifers by free convection from a salt source at the surface. Current understanding of this process mainly concerns the initial stages of salinization only (boundary-layer development, break-up into fingers and initial phase of finger descent). In the modeling, special attention is paid to the role of two processes in the long-term salinization rate: (1) the progressive loss of salt from fingers by lateral diffusion, and (2) the coalescence of fingers during their descent. From the numerical simulations a relationship is derived that describes the development of the horizontally averaged salinity with depth and time as a function of permeability and initial-density contrast for aquifer Rayleigh numbers up to Ra =6,000. This relationship is consistent with and provides an extension to previous generalized relationships of the rate of finger descent. Its applicability to real-world aquifers (Ra >105) that include complexities due to anisotropy, heterogeneity, and mechanical dispersion is discussed. Application to the Pleistocene coastal aquifer of the Netherlands (thickness ≈200 m, permeability ≈10-11 m2) suggests that salinization of the aquifer during historic episodes of inundation by seawater occurred within decades.

Salinity stress inhibits bean leaf expansion by reducing turgor, not wall extensibility.

Treatment of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) seedlings with low levels of salinity (50 or 100 millimolar NaCl) decreased the rate of light-induced leaf cell expansion in the primary leaves over a 3 day period. This decrease could be due to a reduction in one or both of the primary cellular growth parameters: wall extensibility and cell turgor. Wall extensibility was assessed by the Instron technique. Salinity did not decrease extensibility and caused small increases relative to the controls after 72 hours. On the other hand, 50 millimolar NaCl caused a significant reduction in leaf bulk turgor at 24 hours; adaptive decreases in leaf osmotic potential (osmotic adjustment) were more than compensated by parallel decreases in xylem tension potential and the leaf apoplastic solute potential, resulting in a decreased leaf water potential. It is concluded that in bean seedlings, mild salinity initially affects leaf growth rate by a decrease in turgor rather than by a reduction in wall extensibility. Moreover, long-term salinization (10 days) resulted in an apparent mechanical adjustment, i.e. an increase in wall extensibility, which may help counteract reductions in turgor and maintain leaf growth rates.