Long-term Coevolution Research Articles

Microbiota activation and regulation of adaptive immunity.

In the mucosa, T cells and B cells of the immune system are essential for maintaining immune homeostasis by suppressing reactions to harmless antigens and upholding the integrity of intestinal mucosal barrier functions. Host immunity and homeostasis are regulated by metabolites produced by the gut microbiota, which has developed through the long-term coevolution of the host and the gut biome. This is achieved by the immunological system's tolerance for symbiote microbiota, and its ability to generate a proinflammatory response against invasive organisms. The imbalance of the intestinal immune system with commensal organisms is causing a disturbance in the homeostasis of the gut microbiome. The lack of balance results in microbiota dysbiosis, the weakened integrity of the gut barrier, and the development of inflammatory immune reactions toward symbiotic organisms. Researchers may uncover potential therapeutic targets for preventing or regulating inflammatory diseases by understanding the interactions between adaptive immunity and the microbiota. This discussion will explore the connection between adaptive immunity and microbiota.

Long-term balancing selection for pathogen resistance maintains trans-species polymorphisms in a planktonic crustacean

Balancing selection is an evolutionary process that maintains genetic polymorphisms at selected loci and strongly reduces the likelihood of allele fixation. When allelic polymorphisms that predate speciation events are maintained independently in the resulting lineages, a pattern of trans-species polymorphisms may occur. Trans-species polymorphisms have been identified for loci related to mating systems and the MHC, but they are generally rare. Trans-species polymorphisms in disease loci are believed to be a consequence of long-term host-parasite coevolution by balancing selection, the so-called Red Queen dynamics. Here we scan the genomes of three crustaceans with a divergence of over 15 million years and identify 11 genes containing identical-by-descent trans-species polymorphisms with the same polymorphisms in all three species. Four of these genes display molecular footprints of balancing selection and have a function related to immunity. Three of them are located in or close to loci involved in resistance to a virulent bacterial pathogen, Pasteuria, with which the Daphnia host is known to coevolve. This provides rare evidence of trans-species polymorphisms for loci known to be functionally relevant in interactions with a widespread and highly specific parasite. These findings support the theory that specific antagonistic coevolution is able to maintain genetic diversity over millions of years.

The Illusion of Control

Why are societies (partly) adopting the scientific, Western intellectual perspective so little inclined to accept that their vision of the world is much more uncertain than they assume? This paper views the illusion of control as the result of a long-term coevolution in which, in Euro-American society, the basic categories of thinking have shifted from “open” to “closed,” from a focus on exploration of the unknown to the exploitation of the known. Such closed categories are to a large extent anchored in technologies, because in the interaction with technologies, human actions are routinized and adapted to the technology, so that it is difficult to deal with changing circumstances. Thus, as part of the technology explosion of the last two centuries, Euro-American societies have undergone a massive shift from exploration and comprehension of the changing world they deal with to competently repeating known responses to known challenges without understanding the underlying dynamic. This shift makes them (wrongly) assume that they control their world. Any attempt to break this illusion of control must consider how categories are formed and assembled into narratives, and in particular the nature of the relationship between information (cognized signals and categories) and noise (signals excluded from cognition). That relationship has been fundamental to the dynamic of niche construction that has shaped both our thinking and the environment to which it relates.

Rice Stripe Virus Infection Facilitates the Reproductive Potential of Laodelphax striatellus

The rice stripe virus (RSV) is transmitted by the small brown planthopper Laodelphax striatellus in a persistent and circulative–propagative manner. During the last few decades, RSV has caused serious disease outbreaks in rice fields in China. The results of long-term coevolution have led to complex and diverse relationships between viruses and vector insects, and understanding these interactions is critical for the management of diseases and vector organisms. In this study, three groups of comparative experiments were performed to investigate the effects of RSV infection on the reproductive parameters, vitellogenin (Vg), and Vg receptor (VgR) expressions of L. striatellus. The results showed that RSV infection promoted the fecundity, hatchability, and Vg and VgR expressions of L. striatellus but had no effect on the preoviposition period and oviposition period. Furthermore, the RNA interference of the nucleocapsid protein (CP) gene and the injection of the CP antibody in RSV-viruliferous L. striatellus reduced the fecundity, hatchability, and Vg and VgR expressions, further strengthening the hypothesis that RSV may manipulate the reproductive behavior of insect vectors to promote its own transmission. The results of this study can further reveal the interaction mechanism of virus–vector insects in reproduction and virus transmission, and provide new insights for the control of insect-borne viruses.

A data-driven approach to analyse the co-evolution of urban systems through a resilience lens: A Helsinki case study

Urban areas are dynamic systems, in which different infrastructural, social and economic subsystems continuously co-evolve. As such, disruptions in one system can propagate to another. However, open challenges remain in (i) assessing the long-term implications of change for resilience and (ii) understanding how resilience propagates throughout urban systems over time. Despite the increasing reliance on data in smart cities, few studies empirically investigate long-term urban co-evolution using data-driven methods, leading to a gap in urban resilience assessments. This paper presents an approach that combines Getis-ord Gi* statistical and correlation analyses to investigate how cities recover from crises and adapt by analysing how the spatial patterns of urban characteristics and their relationships changed over time. We illustrate our approach through a study on Helsinki’s road infrastructure, socioeconomic system and built-up area from 1991 to 2016, a period marked by a major socioeconomic crisis. By analysing this case study, we provide insights into the co-evolution over more than two decades, thereby addressing the lack of longitudinal studies on urban resilience.

High Frankia abundance and low diversity of microbial community are associated with nodulation specificity and stability of sea buckthorn root nodule.

Actinorhizal symbioses are gaining attention due to the importance of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in sustainable agriculture. Sea buckthorn (Hippophae L.) is an important actinorhizal plant, yet research on the microbial community and nitrogen cycling in its nodules is limited. In addition, the influence of environmental differences on the microbial community of sea buckthorn nodules and whether there is a single nitrogen-fixing actinomycete species in the nodules are still unknown. We investigated the diversity, community composition, network associations and nitrogen cycling pathways of the microbial communities in the root nodule (RN), nodule surface soil (NS), and bulk soil (BS) of Mongolian sea buckthorn distributed under three distinct ecological conditions in northern China using 16S rRNA gene and metagenomic sequencing. Combined with the data of environmental factors, the effects of environmental differences on different sample types were analyzed. The results showed that plants exerted a clear selective filtering effect on microbiota, resulting in a significant reduction in microbial community diversity and network complexity from BS to NS to RN. Proteobacteria was the most abundant phylum in the microbiomes of BS and NS. While RN was primarily dominated by Actinobacteria, with Frankia sp. EAN1pec serving as the most dominant species. Correlation analysis indicated that the host determined the microbial community composition in RN, independent of the ecological and geographical environmental changes of the sea buckthorn plantations. Nitrogen cycle pathway analyses showed that RN microbial community primarily functions in nitrogen fixation, and Frankia sp. EAN1pec was a major contributor to nitrogen fixation genes in RN. This study provides valuable insights into the effects of eco-geographical environment on the microbial communities of sea buckthorn RN. These findings further prove that the nodulation specificity and stability of sea buckthorn root and Frankia sp. EAN1pec may be the result of their long-term co-evolution.

Systematic analysis of the codon usage patterns of African swine fever virus genome coding sequences reveals its host adaptation phenotype.

African swine fever (ASF) is a severe haemorrhagic disease caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV), transmitted by ticks, resulting in high mortality among domestic pigs and wild boars. The global spread of ASFV poses significant economic threats to the swine industry. This study employs diverse analytical methods to explore ASFV's evolution and host adaptation, focusing on codon usage patterns and associated factors. Utilizing phylogenetic analysis methods including neighbour-joining and maximum-likelihood, 64 ASFV strains were categorized into four clades. Codon usage bias (CUB) is modest in ASFV coding sequences. This research identifies multiple factors - such as nucleotide composition, mutational pressures, natural selection and geographical diversity - contributing to the formation of CUB in ASFV. Analysis of relative synonymous codon usage reveals CUB variations within clades and among ASFVs and their hosts. Both Codon Adaptation Index and Similarity Index analyses confirm that ASFV strains are highly adapted to soft ticks (Ornithodoros moubata) but less so to domestic pigs, which could be a result of the long-term co-evolution of ASFV with ticks. This study sheds light on the factors influencing ASFV's codon usage and fitness dynamics, enriching our understanding of its evolution, adaptation and host interactions.

Evolutionary history of tyrosine-supplementing endosymbionts in pollen-feeding beetles.

Many insects feeding on nutritionally challenging diets like plant sap, leaves, or wood engage in ancient associations with bacterial symbionts that supplement limiting nutrients or produce digestive or detoxifying enzymes. However, the distribution, function, and evolutionary dynamics of microbial symbionts in insects exploiting other plant tissues or relying on a predacious diet remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the evolutionary history and function of the intracellular gamma-proteobacterial symbiont "Candidatus Dasytiphilus stammeri" in soft-winged flower beetles (Coleoptera, Melyridae, Dasytinae) that transition from saprophagy or carnivory to palynivory (pollen-feeding) between larval and adult stage. Reconstructing the distribution of the symbiont within the Dasytinae phylogeny unraveled not only a long-term coevolution, originating from a single acquisition event with subsequent host-symbiont codiversification, but also several independent symbiont losses. The analysis of 20 different symbiont genomes revealed that their genomes are severely eroded. However, the universally retained shikimate pathway indicates that the core metabolic contribution to their hosts is the provisioning of tyrosine for cuticle sclerotization and melanization. Despite the high degree of similarity in gene content and order across symbiont strains, the capacity to synthesize additional essential amino acids and vitamins and to recycle urea is retained in some but not all symbionts, suggesting ecological differences among host lineages. This report of tyrosine-provisioning symbionts in insects with saprophagous or carnivorous larvae and pollen-feeding adults expands our understanding of tyrosine supplementation as an important symbiont-provided benefit across a broad range of insects with diverse feeding ecologies.

Two new species of parasitic demodecid mites in the European polecat Mustela putorius and their co-infestation with Miridex putorii (Acariformes: Demodecidae)

The biodiversity of parasitic mites of the Demodecidae, infesting mammalian carnivorans, is poorly understood. To date, 18 host-specific species have been described, including four each from domestic dogs and cats, and only 10 from wild carnivores, known from single or duplicate reports. No data is available on the level of infestation of wild populations, or the co-occurrence of different demodecids in the same host, as only single species have been identified in individual hosts. A convenient model for such studies turned out to be the European polecat Mustela putorius, in which a new genus and species, Miridex putorii, was recently described in the vibrissae region of the skin of the head. Our study reveals that M. putorii co-occur with other species: Demodex putorii sp. nov. (associated with the hairless skin of the head) and Demodex foetorii sp. nov. (associated with hairy skin). Thus, the present study provides descriptions of species new to science. It also provides the first analysis of the occurrence of Demodecidae in wild mammalian carnivorans at the species and individual animal level based on the co-occurrence of three demodecid mite species in the skin of the head in M. putorius. Demodecid mites were found in 75.7% of 37 polecats; M. putorii showed the highest prevalence (56.8%), and D. putorii showed the highest abundance in the skin (mean 10.8 mites in 9 cm2). The three species co-occurred in 5.4% of the polecats, and two species in 27.0%. Despite the very high abundances, infestation was not associated with gross skin pathology (a feature of stable parasite–host systems formed by long-term co-evolution). The co-occurrence of several species and the separation of microhabitats are also typical of Demodecidae of other mammalian groups and illustrate the optimal use of the host body as a habitat and food source with limited impact. urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:4D12FF6B-5A9E-4346-A496-52AC8448E7FE https://zoobank.org/NomenclaturalActs/4D12FF6B-5A9E-4346-A496-52AC8448E7FE urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:07C533F5-9392-4FD3-BF9A-E1058C0FC1D6 https://zoobank.org/NomenclaturalActs/07C533F5-9392-4FD3-BF9A-E1058C0FC1D6

Recent Advances in the Genetic and Biochemical Mechanisms of Rice Resistance to Brown Planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens Stål)

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food of more than half of Earth’s population. Brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål, BPH) is a host-specific pest of rice responsible for inducing major losses in rice production. Utilizing host resistance to control N. lugens is considered to be the most cost-effective method. Therefore, the exploration of resistance genes and resistance mechanisms has become the focus of breeders’ attention. During the long-term co-evolution process, rice has evolved multiple mechanisms to defend against BPH infection, and BPHs have evolved various mechanisms to overcome the defenses of rice plants. More than 49 BPH-resistance genes/QTLs have been reported to date, and the responses of rice to BPH feeding activity involve various processes, including MAPK activation, plant hormone production, Ca2+ flux, etc. Several secretory proteins of BPHs have been identified and are involved in activating or suppressing a series of defense responses in rice. Here, we review some recent advances in our understanding of rice–BPH interactions. We also discuss research progress in controlling methods of brown planthoppers, including cultural management, trap cropping, and biological control. These studies contribute to the establishment of green integrated management systems for brown planthoppers.

Evaluating the role of rhizosphere microbial home-field advantage in Betula luminifera adaptation to antimony mining areas

It has been established that the coevolution of plants and the rhizosphere microbiome in response to abiotic stress can result in the recruitment of specific functional microbiomes. However, the potential of inoculated rhizosphere microbiomes to enhance plant fitness and the inheritance of adaptive traits in subsequent generations remains unclear. In this study, cross-inoculation trials were conducted using seeds, rhizosphere microbiome, and in situ soil collected from areas of Betula luminifera grown in both antimony mining and control sites. Compared to the control site, plants originating from mining areas exhibited stronger adaptive traits, specifically manifested as significant increases in hundred-seed weight, specific surface area, and germination rate, as well as markedly enhanced seedling survival rate and biomass. Inoculation with mining microbiomes could enhance the fitness of plants in mining sites through a “home-field advantage” while also improving the fitness of plants originating from control sites. During the initial phase of seedling development, bacteria play a crucial role in promoting growth, primarily due to their mechanisms of metal resistance and nutrient cycling. This study provided evidence that the outcomes of long-term coevolution between plants and the rhizosphere microbiome in mining areas can be passed on to future generations. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that transgenerational inheritance and rhizosphere microbiome inoculation are important factors in improving the adaptability of plants in mining areas. The findings have important implications for vegetation restoration and ecological environment improvement in mining areas.

Molecular studies of phages-Klebsiella pneumoniae in mucoid environment: innovative use of mucolytic agents prior to the administration of lytic phages.

Mucins are important glycoproteins that form a protective layer throughout the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. There is scientific evidence of increase in phage-resistance in the presence of mucin for some bacterial pathogens. Manipulation in mucin composition may ultimately influence the effectiveness of phage therapy. In this work, two clinical strains of K. pneumoniae (K3574 and K3325), were exposed to the lytic bacteriophage vB_KpnS-VAC35 in the presence and absence of mucin on a long-term co-evolution assay, in an attempt to mimic in vitro the exposure to mucins that bacteria and their phages face in vivo. Enumerations of the bacterial and phage counts at regular time intervals were conducted, and extraction of the genomic DNA of co-evolved bacteria to the phage, the mucin and both was performed. We determined the frequency of phage-resistant mutants in the presence and absence of mucin and including a mucolytic agent (N-acetyl L-cysteine, NAC), and sequenced them using Nanopore. We phenotypically demonstrated that the presence of mucin induces the emergence of bacterial resistance against lytic phages, effectively decreased in the presence of NAC. In addition, the genomic analysis revealed some of the genes relevant to the development of phage resistance in long-term co-evolution, with a special focus on the mucoid environment. Genes involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates were mutated in the presence of mucin. In conclusion, the use of mucolytic agents prior to the administration of lytic phages could be an interesting therapeutic option when addressing K. pneumoniae infections in environments where mucin is overproduced.

Unveiling the stealthy tactics: mycoplasma's immune evasion strategies.

Mycoplasmas, the smallest known self-replicating organisms, possess a simple structure, lack a cell wall, and have limited metabolic pathways. They are responsible for causing acute or chronic infections in humans and animals, with a significant number of species exhibiting pathogenicity. Although the innate and adaptive immune responses can effectively combat this pathogen, mycoplasmas are capable of persisting in the host, indicating that the immune system fails to eliminate them completely. Recent studies have shed light on the intricate and sophisticated defense mechanisms developed by mycoplasmas during their long-term co-evolution with the host. These evasion strategies encompass various tactics, including invasion, biofilm formation, and modulation of immune responses, such as inhibition of immune cell activity, suppression of immune cell function, and resistance against immune molecules. Additionally, antigen variation and molecular mimicry are also crucial immune evasion strategies. This review comprehensively summarizes the evasion mechanisms employed by mycoplasmas, providing valuable insights into the pathogenesis of mycoplasma infections.

Genomic evidence for the first symbiotic Deferribacterota, a novel gut symbiont from the deep-sea hydrothermal vent shrimp Rimicaris kairei.

The genus Rimicaris is the dominant organism living in hydrothermal vents. However, little research has been done on the functions of their intestinal flora. Here, we investigated the potential functions of Deferribacterota, which is dominant in the intestine of Rimicaris kairei from the Central Indian Ridge. In total, six metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of Deferribacterota were obtained using the metagenomic approach. The six Deferribacterota MAGs (Def-MAGs) were clustered into a new branch in the phylogenetic tree. The six Def-MAGs were further classified into three species, including one new order and two new genera, based on the results of phylogenetic analysis, relative evolutionary divergence (RED), average nucleotide identity (ANI), average amino acid identity (AAI) and DNA-DNA hybridization (DDH) values. The results of the energy metabolism study showed that these bacteria can use a variety of carbon sources, such as glycogen, sucrose, salicin, arbutin, glucose, cellobiose, and maltose. These bacteria have a type II secretion system and effector proteins that can transport some intracellular toxins to the extracellular compartment and a type V CRISPR-Cas system that can defend against various invasions. In addition, cofactors such as biotin, riboflavin, flavin mononucleotide (FMN), and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) synthesized by R. kairei gut Deferribacterota may also assist their host in surviving under extreme conditions. Taken together, the potential function of Deferribacterota in the hydrothermal R. kairei gut suggests its long-term coevolution with the host.

Comparison of gut bacterial communities of Hyphantriacunea Drury (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae), based on 16S rRNA full-length sequencing.

There are a large number of microorganisms in the gut of insects, which form a symbiotic relationship with the host during the long-term co-evolution process and have a significant impact on the host's nutrition, physiology, development, immunity, stress tolerance and other aspects. However, the composition of the gut microbes of Hyphantriacunea remains unclear. In order to investigate the difference and diversity of intestinal microbiota of H.cunea larvae feeding on different host plants, we used PacBio sequencing technology for the first time to sequence the 16S rRNA full-length gene of the intestinal microbiota of H.cunea. The species classification, β diversity and function of intestinal microflora of the 5th instar larvae of four species of H.cunea feeding on apricot, plum, redbud and Chinese ash were analysed. The results showed that a total of nine phyla and 65 genera were identified by PacBio sequencing, amongst which Firmicutes was the dominant phylum and Enterococcus was the dominant genus, with an average relative abundance of 59.29% and 52.16%, respectively. PERMANOVA analysis and cluster heat map showed that the intestinal microbiomes of H.cunea larvae, fed on different hosts, were significantly different. LEfSe analysis confirmed the effect of host diet on intestinal community structure and PICRUSt2 analysis showed that most of the predictive functions were closely related to material transport and synthetic, metabolic and cellular processes. The results of this study laid a foundation for revealing the interaction between the intestinal microorganisms of H.cunea and its hosts and provided ideas for exploring new green prevention and control strategies of H.cunea.

Effect of Different Host Plants on the Diversity of Gut Bacterial Communities of Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith, 1797)

Intestinal symbiotic bacteria have formed an interdependent symbiotic relationship with many insect species after long-term coevolution, which plays a critical role in host growth and adaptation. Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) is a worldwide significant migratory invasive pest. As a polyphagous pest, S. frugiperda can harm more than 350 plants and poses a severe threat to food security and agricultural production. In this study, 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technology was used to analyze the diversity and structure of the gut bacteria of this pest feeding on six diets (maize, wheat, rice, honeysuckle flowers, honeysuckle leaves, and Chinese yam). The results showed that the S. frugiperda fed on rice had the highest bacterial richness and diversity, whereas the larvae fed on honeysuckle flowers had the lowest abundance and diversity of gut bacterial communities. Firmicutes, Actinobacteriota, and Proteobacteria were the most dominant bacterial phyla. PICRUSt2 analysis indicated that most of the functional prediction categories were concentrated in metabolic bacteria. Our results confirmed that the gut bacterial diversity and community composition of S. frugiperda were affected significantly by host diets. This study provided a theoretical basis for clarifying the host adaptation mechanism of S. frugiperda, which also provided a new direction to improve polyphagous pest management strategies.

Vitellogenin Facilitates Associations between the Whitefly and a Bacteriocyte Symbiont.

Integration between animal reproduction and symbiont inheritance is fundamental in symbiosis biology, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. Vitellogenin (Vg) is critical for oogenesis, and it is also a pathogen pattern recognition molecule in some animals. Previous studies have shown that Vg is involved in the regulation of symbiont abundance and transmission. However, the mechanisms by which an insect and its symbiont contribute to the function of Vg and how Vg impacts the persistence of insect-microbe symbiosis remain largely unclear. Symbionts are transovarially transmitted via maternal inheritance of the bacteriocytes in the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. Surprisingly, Vg is localized in bacteriocytes of whiteflies. Vg could be synthesized in whitefly bacteriocytes by the gene Vg expressed in these cells or exported into bacteriocytes from hemolymph via the Vg receptor. We further found that the juvenile hormone and "Candidatus Portiera aleyrodidarum" (here termed Portiera) control the level and localization of Vg in whiteflies. Immunocapture PCR revealed interactions between Vg and Portiera. Suppressing Vg expression reduced Portiera abundance as well as whitefly oogenesis and fecundity. Thus, we reveal that Vg facilitated the persistence of whitefly-bacteriocyte symbiont associations. This study will provide insight into the key role of Vg in the coevolution of insect reproduction and symbiont inheritance. IMPORTANCE Intracellular heritable symbionts have been incorporated into insect reproductive and developmental biology by various mechanisms. All Bemisia tabaci species harbor the obligate symbiont Portiera in specialized insect cells called bacteriocytes. We report that the whitefly juvenile hormone and Portiera determined vitellogenin (Vg) localization in bacteriocytes of whiteflies. In turn, Vg affected whitefly fecundity as well as fitness and transmission of the symbiont. Our findings show that Vg, a multifunctional protein, is indispensable for symbiont integration into the reproduction and development of insects. This reflects the outcome of long-term coevolution of the insect-microbe symbiosis.

Walk on the wild side: SIV infection in African non-human primate hosts-from the field to the laboratory.

HIV emerged following cross-species transmissions of simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) that naturally infect non-human primates (NHPs) from Africa. While HIV replication and CD4+ T-cell depletion lead to increased gut permeability, microbial translocation, chronic immune activation, and systemic inflammation, the natural hosts of SIVs generally avoid these deleterious consequences when infected with their species-specific SIVs and do not progress to AIDS despite persistent lifelong high viremia due to long-term coevolution with their SIV pathogens. The benign course of natural SIV infection in the natural hosts is in stark contrast to the experimental SIV infection of Asian macaques, which progresses to simian AIDS. The mechanisms of non-pathogenic SIV infections are studied mainly in African green monkeys, sooty mangabeys, and mandrills, while progressing SIV infection is experimentally modeled in macaques: rhesus macaques, pigtailed macaques, and cynomolgus macaques. Here, we focus on the distinctive features of SIV infection in natural hosts, particularly (1): the superior healing properties of the intestinal mucosa, which enable them to maintain the integrity of the gut barrier and prevent microbial translocation, thus avoiding excessive/pathologic immune activation and inflammation usually perpetrated by the leaking of the microbial products into the circulation; (2) the gut microbiome, the disruption of which is an important factor in some inflammatory diseases, yet not completely understood in the course of lentiviral infection; (3) cell population shifts resulting in target cell restriction (downregulation of CD4 or CCR5 surface molecules that bind to SIV), control of viral replication in the lymph nodes (expansion of natural killer cells), and anti-inflammatory effects in the gut (NKG2a/c+ CD8+ T cells); and (4) the genes and biological pathways that can shape genetic adaptations to viral pathogens and are associated with the non-pathogenic outcome of the natural SIV infection. Deciphering the protective mechanisms against SIV disease progression to immunodeficiency, which have been established through long-term coevolution between the natural hosts and their species-specific SIVs, may prompt the development of novel therapeutic interventions, such as drugs that can control gut inflammation, enhance gut healing capacities, or modulate the gut microbiome. These developments can go beyond HIV infection and open up large avenues for correcting gut damage, which is common in many diseases.

农业文化遗产生态系统服务的复合增益——以浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统为例

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 农业文化遗产生态系统服务的复合增益——以浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统为例 DOI: 10.5846/stxb202108252374 作者: 作者单位: 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家自然科学基金面上项目（42171279）；国家自然科学基金中德合作交流项目（M-0342） Extra services of agricultural heritage systems ecosystem services: A case study on Costal Bench Terrace System in Ruian, Zhejing Province Author: Affiliation: Fund Project: 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:农业文化遗产是农村与其所处环境长期协同进化和动态适应下所形成的独特的土地利用系统和农业景观，具备丰富的景观要素。景观要素的耦合会对景观整体的生态系统服务供应产生影响。研究构建了多景观要素的"生态系统服务复合增益"理论框架，并以浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统为例，将其景观要素划分为农田生态系统和水域生态系统，并分别评估其景观要素生态系统服务价值、景观整体生态系统服务价值和生态系统服务复合增益价值。研究结果显示：（1）2019年浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统生态系统服务总价值为187.72亿元，文化服务价值最高，占总价值的91.8%；（2）农田的生态系统服务价值为6.03亿元，占总价值的3.2%，水域的生态系统服务价值为8.15亿元，占总价值的4.3%；（3）生态系统服务复合增益价值为173.54亿元，占总价值的92.5%。研究表明，农田和水域两种景观要素的耦合能提高浙江瑞安滨海塘河台田系统中食物供应、气体调节、盐碱地改良、休息游憩四种生态系统服务价值，致使其产生生态系统服务复合增益。 Abstract:Agricultural heritage systems is a unique land use system and agricultural landscape formed under the long-term co-evolution and dynamic adaptation of the countryside and its environment, which is rich in landscape elements. The coupling of landscape elements will have impact on the supply of ecosystem services in the whole landscape. Agricultural heritage systems under human long-term cultivation has gradually formed a special landscape pattern. However, the current research on the valuation of agricultural heritage systems ecosystem services is limited to regard it as a single ecosystem, ignoring the impact of the interaction between patches on the supply of ecosystem services, such as the movement of heat, water and nutrients among patches. This research constructed a theoretical framework of "Extra services" and defined "Extra services". We took Costal Bench Terrace System in Ruian, Zhejing Province as the research object and divided its landscape elements into farmland ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem. Referring to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Classification System, this research used the method of ecological economics to evaluate the ecosystem services value of landscape elements, the ecosystem services value of whole landscape, and the Extra services value, respectively. The results show that:(1) the total value of ecosystem services in the Costal Bench Terrace Ecosystem was 18.772 billion yuan in 2019, and the value of cultural services was the highest, accounting for 91.8% of the total value; (2) The ecosystem service value of farmland ecosystem was 0.603 billion yuan, accounting for 3.2% of the total, while the ecosystem service value of aquatic ecosystem was 0.815 billion yuan, accounting for 4.3% of the total; (3) The Extra services value was 17.354 billion yuan, accounting for 92.5% of the total. The coupling of farmland ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem leads to the enhancement of the supply of four type of ecosystem services in raised-field agricultural system, which are food production, gas regulation, saline-alkali soil reclamation, and leisure services. This ultimately leads to the generation of Extra services. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

Concept about the Virulence Factor of Legionella

Pathogenic species of Legionella can infect human alveolar macrophages through Legionella-containing aerosols to cause a disease called Legionellosis, which has two forms: a flu-like Pontiac fever and severe pneumonia named Legionnaires' disease (LD). Legionella is an opportunistic pathogen that frequently presents in aquatic environments as a biofilm or protozoa parasite. Long-term interaction and extensive co-evolution with various genera of amoebae render Legionellae pathogenic to infect humans and also generate virulence differentiation and heterogeneity. Conventionally, the proteins involved in initiating replication processes and human macrophage infections have been regarded as virulence factors and linked to pathogenicity. However, because some of the virulence factors are associated with the infection of protozoa and macrophages, it would be more accurate to classify them as survival factors rather than virulence factors. Given that the molecular basis of virulence variations among non-pathogenic, pathogenic, and highly pathogenic Legionella has not yet been elaborated from the perspective of virulence factors, a comprehensive explanation of how Legionella infects its natural hosts, protozoans, and accidental hosts, humans is essential to show a novel concept regarding the virulence factor of Legionella. In this review, we overviewed the pathogenic development of Legionella from protozoa, the function of conventional virulence factors in the infections of protozoa and macrophages, the host's innate immune system, and factors involved in regulating the host immune response, before discussing a probably new definition for the virulence factors of Legionella.