Long-distance Conveyance Research Articles

Copper for the early oxhide ingots traced to the South Urals

Oxhide ingots are flat, rectangular slabs of metal, most commonly of copper, with protruding corners of varying styles. These Late Bronze Age artifacts were widespread across the Mediterranean for approximately half a millennium between the 16th and 11th centuries BC. Although they are generally known as essentially a Cypriot “commodity brand” by the late 15th century BCE, the origin of this ingot’s distinct shape has remained unknown. With the expansion of the lead-isotope database of Eurasian copper ores, the origin of the oldest chemically characterized oxide ingots may now be defined. The bimodal lead isotope compositions of 15 early, pillow-shaped oxhide ingots excavated in Crete are consistent with those of copper ores from the Southern Urals, which are known to have been actively mined in the Bronze Age. Together, Pb isotope and trace element compositions indicate that the majority of the ingots were cast from copper derived from Ural-type Cu-Zn volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits. However, two ingots enriched in Ni, As, and Co match Main Ural Fault-type ores that are hosted by ultramafic rocks.The characteristic design of the pillow-shaped ingot was likely related to the particulars of overland transport, facilitating their long-distance conveyance on pack animals. There is further support of a non-Cypriot origin of this form in the possible association between the words for “ingot”, “copper” and “hide” across languages of Western Asia and the Mediterranean. Thus, an eastern origin of the oxhide form for ingots is likely.

Material conveyance in the Southern California Bight: Obsidian on Alta California's Channel Islands

Inhabited by Native Americans for at least 13,000 years, California’s Channel Islands were isolated from the adjacent mainland throughout the Quaternary. A rich archaeological record demonstrates that island peoples thrived for millennia, with access to abundant marine and terrestrial resources. Exchange with mainlanders for various goods is well documented, with long-distance material conveyance occurring very early and intensifying later in time. Obsidian was one exotic material imported to the islands from distant quarries beginning at least ∼11,750 years ago and continuing until the collapse of native exchange networks after European contact. Geochemical sourcing shows that nearly 94% of obsidian artifacts found on the islands comes from the Coso Volcanic Field located ∼300 km or more from the islands, with smaller percentages originating from sources as much as >850 km from the islands. Hydration data generally support radiocarbon dates that show that islanders participated in long-distance conveyance networks for millennia. Using these obsidian data, we examine Channel Island conveyance networks through space and time. We argue that conveyance of goods between islanders and mainlanders was a by-product primarily of social networks that functioned as sources of information, innovation, marriage partners, and strategic alliances.

Native acquisition of obsidian in colonial-era central California: Implications from Mission San José

In many regions, the mechanisms by which indigenous people acquired lithic materials during the colonial period are only poorly understood. We take on these issues through the examination of more than 1100 obsidian artifacts recovered from the Native American neighborhood at Mission San José (ca. CE 1797–1840) in central California. We conducted a multifaceted analysis of the assemblage, with an eye toward understanding how indigenous people in this region acquired obsidian after the onset of missionary colonialism. Our study included analysis of technological attributes, geological provenance via X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, and dating through obsidian hydration. Our results demonstrate that native people living at Mission San José acquired obsidian both through long-distance conveyance from source areas and through some recycling of archaeological artifacts. We compare our results to regional precontact patterns of obsidian acquisition and conveyance as well as obsidian assemblages from other colonial-era sites in central California. Taken together, our study indicates persistent yet modified pathways of obsidian acquisition in central California during the colonial period.

Energy Footprint analysis of brackish groundwater desalination with zero liquid discharge in inland areas of the Arabian Peninsula

Semi-arid regions throughout the world face water scarcity and the need for more efficient and alternative sources of drinking water supply. Inland regions in the Arabian Peninsula have the alternate option of coastal seawater desalination and long-distance conveyance, often with lift to substantial elevation. In several aquifers of this region, naturally occurring radium in groundwater is above acceptable standards and must be reduced.We analyzed the energy footprint of a modular process employing a combination of pellet reactor for radium and hardness minimization, reverse osmosis with intermediate precipitation, and concentrated brine crystallization to achieve high recovery with zero liquid discharge (ZLD). Pilot tests demonstrate technical viability of the selected processes to achieve high recovery, radium and hardness reduction, and over 95% salinity reduction with zero liquid discharge. The results indicate that the energy usage per unit volume of water produced from groundwater is consistently lower than coastal seawater desalination, regardless of the conveyance distance. The substantial reduction of energy, higher recovery and minimized residual discharge of this process are also beneficial to the environment when compared to conventional processes currently being used. The results may be applicable and beneficial to other regions with similar conditions.