London Olympic Games Research Articles

Is urban planning returning to the past in search of a sustainable future? Exploring the six Paris and London Olympic Games (1900–2024)

ABSTRACT Mega events are facing a disruption, despite their adaptative nature, in their continued 120-year growth in a context of environmental and energy crisis doubled by increased ethical and social expectations. We put forward the hypothesis, in the middle term, of a gradual disconnection between (1) mega events such as the Olympic Games and (2) a catalyst effect on urban regeneration and attractivity pursued by host cities; and over the long term, we explore a return to the past characterized by more modest and ‘sustainable’ Games. We first unveil how urban planning was implemented through the Olympic Games over the last 30 years to understand how Olympic urban mega projects have been increasingly questioned as risky and unsustainable and how IOC frameworks gradually adapted to articulate sustainability and legacy. Is it a return to the comparatively modest 1900, 1908, and 1924 and 1948 Olympics exemplified by the new quarters built after the failed 1992, 2008 and 2012 Paris bids? How do historiography and narratives compare Paris and London? Last, we analyse Paris 2024 as an example of disconnection between the Olympics and mega urban project, as included in an existing 30-year metropolitan project focusing limited new infrastructure on local needs.

REVIEW OF COUNTER-TERRORISM SYSTEMS DURING SUMMER OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE 21ST CENTURY

The research results presented in the article pertain to the organization of security systems by the host countries during the Summer Olympic Games in Athens (2004), Beijing (2008), London (2012), and Rio de Janeiro (2016). The central part of the considerations focuses on the complex issue of searching for methods and tools to effectively protect participants of such large mass sports events, not only against terrorists. Taking into account the identified problem situation, it was agreed that the aim of the article will be to characterize the security methods and tools employed by the organizers of the Summer Olympic Games. The research was conducted with the use of selected theoretical scientific methods, including analysis, synthesis, comparison, analogy, generalization, and inference. These methods were applied in a structured way to a research process that focused on case studies of selected Summer Olympic Games that were considered representative samples. The results of the carried out research clearly indicate a high complexity of the security systems created for the needs of the Olympic Games. In every analyzed case, the need occurred to integrate state institutions and international organizations, including various agencies dealing with security issues, including terrorism. Additionally, based on the obtained results, it was also determined that properly forecasting threats is crucial in ensuring the safety of participants in the Olympic Games. It should be further emphasized that in each analyzed case study, the organizers of these large sports events fulfilled their role as hosts very well. They should, therefore, be recognized as a good example for other countries that will apply for organizing this type of mass sports events in the future. They must also be aware that each sporting event of this type requires a significant organizational and financial effort and that the threats are not limited to terrorism but can be posed by various external and internal factors. This article is one of the first attempts to assess the justification of implementing various methods and tools to the security systems of mass international sporting events through the prism of their effectiveness. In addition, the proposed solutions, including the threat forecasting methodology, may be useful to both practitioners and theoreticians in creating more effective solutions in the field of national and international security.

The Polish Olympic Committee’s Subjection to the Communist Authorities in the Stalinist Period: An Inside Story

The article, based on archive materials and press publications, as well as major academic studies, contains information on attempts by the Communists in Poland to take control over the Polish Olympic Committee (POC) in the Stalinist period. After the Olympic games in London in 1948 they ‘closed’ the POC’s activity in order to nominate a ‘new’ POC in June 1950 created by people connected with the dominant Communist Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP). The POC even included two Soviet officers of Polish origin, while the people’s power forced the previous president of the organization to resign. However, throughout the whole Stalinist period in Poland the Communists did not manage to deprive Professor Jerzy Loth of his membership in the International Olympic Committee, whom they were planning to replace with their trusted people. For that reason, they sent to Lausanne the names of their candidates at least four times. They did so even when the POC was formally ‘closed’. In spite of that, until 1956, the people’s power did not manage to implement the plan of taking full control over the POC. This fact is largely thanks to the management of the POC and Professor Loth.

Mathematical Model for 100- and 200-meter Olympic Games Running Championship Time Records

The 100 and 200- meter running championships for both males and females were first held in 1948 at London Olympic Games 1948. Some time records made by the running champions have been continuously improved. Thus, running championship is not only intended to win the gold medals but also to make new world records. The secondary data were in the form of running championships' time records used to formulate the mathematical models and determine the minimum time limits (fastest). This research used the time-record data of 100 and 200- meter running championships for both males and females winning the gold medals from the Olympic Games held in 1948 to 2020. The mathematical Model for 100 and 200- meter running championships was more appropriately formulated using a logarithmic regression equation. Meanwhile, the time records for running championships of 100 meters for females as well as those of 200 meters for both males and females used a simple linear regression. The world record for running 100 meters for males still belongs to Usain Bolt (9.63 seconds). By using an assumption that the time records are normally distributed, those time records can be broken/improved into 9.53 seconds. Moreover, if the analysis is made using a box-plot diagram, the fastest time can be 9.42 seconds. A similar conclusion was also obtained for the world records of running 100 meters for females and 200 meters for males and females mentioning that the recently achieved time records still can be broken/improved in the future.

Nutritional Status and Adequacy of Dietary Intake of an Elite 1000m Flat Water Kayak Paddler

Background: Sports performance, besides the mental and emotional features of the athlete, is the outcome from the correct combination of training load, rest/ recovery and nutrition. Nutritional deficits or excesses can be deleterious for sports performance, particularly in sports that rely on high power output as 1000m kayak paddler. Objective: To describe the nutritional intake habits of a highly performing kayaker, and its adequacy for training, as only few studies have focused on this type of sports. Methods: An elite male kayaker specialized in 1000m flat-water races, World Champion, European Champion and Silver medallist in the London Olympic Games (35 years) reported his food intake for 7 consecutive days during a specific preparation period. Results: Daily average energy intake was 3174 ± 306 kcal; the intake of carbohydrates was 47.8 ± 9.3% (4.4 ± 1.2 g.kg-1. body weight. day-1), protein 20.8 ± 4.3% (1.9 ± 0.3 g.kg-1body weight. day) and fat intake was 31.4 ± 5.2% (1.3 ± 0.2 g. kg-1 body weight day. d-1). Fiber average consumption was 23.6 ± 9.2 g/day and cholesterol 638 ± 218 g/day. While water-soluble vitamins were within the recommended levels, fat-soluble vitamins and beta-carotene were below athletes’ recommendations. All macro minerals intake was within the Dietary References Intake (DRI) for general population values as well as the trace elements with exception of iodine and molybdenum. Also, an unbalanced ratio between omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids was observed. Conclusion: This kayaker had a caloric intake adequate to the training requirement of the analyzed week. However, a reduction in fat intake and an increment in carbohydrate should be promoted in order to achieve dietary recommendations for athletes. The low intake of fat-soluble vitamins and beta-carotene found may justify the use supplementation. Keywords: kayaking, nutrition, macronutrients, vitamins, minerals

Research on the Dissemination Strategy of TV Advertisements for Sports Events, Taking CCTV’s Advertisements for the Beijing and London Olympic Games as Examples

Research on the Dissemination Strategy of TV Advertisements for Sports Events, Taking CCTV’s Advertisements for the Beijing and London Olympic Games as Examples

Intercity connections and a world city network based on international sport events: Empirical studies on the Beijing, London, and Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games

Intercity connections and a world city network based on international sport events: Empirical studies on the Beijing, London, and Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games

Analysis of Different Key Behavioral Patterns to Score in Elite Taekwondoists According to the Weight Category and Gender.

Traditionally, research in taekwondo has focused on athletes' overall performance considering the entire sample of the tournament or analyzed selected bouts while ignoring behavioral differences of athletes according to their gender and weight category. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze the behavioral patterns used to score points in the London Olympic Games according to gender and weight category [fin (FW), feather (FTW), light (LW), and heavy (HW)] of the athletes. A total of 24,940 actions were analyzed by using observational methodology, a mixed method methodology where lag sequential and polar coordinate analysis were applied. Different patterns could be seen in the actions performed prior to score between the weight categories for both genders. To score one point, females FW performed dodges, LW used indirect attacks and HW used direct attacks, posterior counterattacks, dodges and blocks. After scoring one-point, female athletes used a variety of actions, defensives like dodges (FW/LW) and blocks (LW), and offensives like simultaneous counterattacks (FW, FTW, LW) and posterior (FTW) as well as direct (FTW, HW) and indirect (FW) attacks. No patterns were found in males when scoring one-point, only LW competitors performed a sequence characterized by the performance of dodges followed by indirect attacks prior scoring while simultaneous counterattacks occurred after score one point. To score two points, similar patterns were found for all weight groups among female competitors. Females performed openings prior to scoring (LW/HW), while anticipatory (FW/FTW) and posterior counterattacks (LW) occurred after scoring, followed by cuts (FW), direct attacks (LW) and openings (HW). In males, FTW and HW used counterattacks prior to scoring (posterior and simultaneous), while FTW and LW also used counterattacks after scoring (anticipatory and simultaneous). Prior to scoring three points different patterns were found according to the weight category, while FW females used cuts and openings, LW used dodges and posterior counterattacks. After scoring three points, FW continued to use cuts, openings and posterior counterattacks while FTW used indirect attacks and HW used simultaneous counterattacks. On the contrary, similar behavior was found in males. FW and LWs used simultaneous counterattacks prior to scoring while they used defensive actions such as openings (FW) and dodges (LW) after scoring. Male FTW used also posterior counterattacks after scoring. Prior to scoring four points females reported different key behaviors. FW used anticipatory counterattacks and LW direct attacks whereas after scoring, FTW used dodges and openings. Similarities were found in males to score four points. LW and HW performed blocks prior scoring, FW and HW performed also direct attacks while FTW performed posterior counterattacks prior score. After scoring, defensives actions were performed such as dodges (LW) or cuts (FW, FTW, HW) and indirect attacks (LW, HW). This is one of the first studies analyzing behavioral patterns in taekwondo according to the weight category and gender of the athletes. The observed relationships identified different behavioral patterns according to the weight category for each gender and demonstrate the necessity to individualize trainings according to the athlete's characteristics (weight and gender). It is suggested that coaches and psychologists train athletes to improve their decision-making according to the successful patterns extracted in this study.

Characteristics of Technical and Tactical Preparation of Elite Judokas during the World Championships and Olympic Games.

The basis for achieving success in sport is technical preparation supported by adequate level of physical fitness. During judo competitions, athletes use technique to meet tactical objectives aimed to achieve victory. The modification of the rules of combat in judo that has been carried out in recent years has changed the course of competition. It seems to be interesting if there are relations between technical and tactical preparation expressed by means of indices and modification of the course of the fight caused by changes in the rules. The purpose of the paper was to determine the values of technical and tactical preparation of judokas during competition at the elite level. A hundred and twenty bouts during the Olympic Games in London in 2012 as well as 136 bouts fought during the World Championships in Rio de Janeiro in 2013 were analyzed. Verification was performed by calculating indicators of technical and tactical preparation. The results show a significant correlation between the indicators of technical and tactical preparation and the ranking in the general classification of the analyzed competitions. There were no statistically significant correlations between the change of fighting rules and the level of the examined indices of technical and tactical preparation. The results of the study verified the appropriate method of preparation for the competitions analyzed.

Eye care and ocular findings at the Olympic and Paralympic Games Rio 2016

ObjectivesTo describe the attendance and ocular profile of competitors and members of delegations who attended the Polyclinic Ophthalmology Division during the Olympic and Paralympic Games Rio 2016.MethodsThe eye clinic was...

The comparison of biomechanics of kayak paddling between para-kayakers and elite able-bodied kayakers: a pilot study

Understanding the kinematics of the upper extremity during kayak paddling is important for both performance and injury prevention. However, there is a lack of information on scapular and shoulder kinematics in para-kayakers who have additional impairments. This study aimed to clarify the biomechanics of kayak paddling in para-kayakers. We assessed the biomechanics of 5 para-kayakers (included the subjects who competed the 2016 Rio Paralympic Games) and 10 elite able-bodied kayakers (included the subjects who competed the London Olympic Games in 2012 or world championships) during paddling on a kayak ergometer using an electromagnetic tracking device. The stroke rate, scapular motion relative to thorax, humerus motion relative to thorax, and humerus motion relative to scapula during the first 10 cycles of paddling were evaluated. During the first 10 cycles of paddling, para-kayakers showed significantly lower stroke rate compared to elite kayakers. There were also significant differences in scapular upward/downward rotation, humerothoracic plane of elevation, and grenohumeral plane of elevation between the para-kayakers and the elite kayakers. Para-kayakers who have some impairments showed lower kayak paddling performance and different movement patterns compared with elite kayakers. The results of this study could provide some information to guide training programs to improve para-kayakers’ performance.

Membership of English sport clubs: A dynamic panel data analysis of the trickle-down effect

ABSTRACT Investments in elite sport and major sporting events are often justified in sport policy by various rationales, one of which is a ‘trickle-down’ effect whereby successful athletes have a positive impact on general sport participation rates. This effect is likely to be greater when hosting events, as home advantage can contribute to sporting success. The purpose of this research is to explore the possibility of a trickle-down effect on sports club membership in the United Kingdom in the context of the 2012 London Olympic Games. Secondary data were collected on sports club membership levels in 33 sports, over a ten-year period, from 2007–2016 (n = 330). Sporting success was measured by the number of gold medals won in international competitions, the number of major sport events hosted in the UK, and the results of the BBC’s Sports Personality of the Year award (SPOTY). The outcomes of a dynamic panel regression analysis show a causal relationship between the trickle-down effect and sports club membership over a four-year period.

The ‘Great Game’ and Sport: Identity, Contestation and Irish–British Relations in the Olympic Movement

This paper draws on original rigorous research conducted in an extensive range of local, national and international state archives, sporting repositories and personal papers. In focus is the 1948 London Olympic Games, the Olympic movement and a ‘new’ phase in Irish–British relations involving international sport. Here, for the first time, we elucidate the role of non-state sportive diplomats who, acting as cultural intermediaries, were involved in the production of ideas about the normative rules governing international jurisdiction and identity that prevented nations/states from being recognized on their own terms. The intricate details revealed here are made possible by a rigorous two-way traffic between sensitizing concepts and evidence: specifically, the quest for exciting significance by non-state actors, soft power struggles and ‘patriot games’ via the medium of international Olympic and athletic movements. The paper also makes two other important contributions: to sport in/and international relations and the politics of Olympic protests.

Statistical Comparison of Singles Badminton Matches at the London 2012 and Rio De Janeiro 2016 Olympic Games.

The aim of this study was to analyse statistical differences in men’s and women’s singles badminton competitions at the London and Rio Olympic Games. Forty-five matches (128 sets in total) played at the 2012 and 2016 Olympics in badminton were analysed. Variables related to the match (6) and each set (13) were determined. The results show the longest rally in sets 1 and 3, the biggest come back to win the game in set 2, and that the duration of set 3 for men was longer in Rio than in London. All of the women’s sets had longer duration, and the rally length and the number of strokes per rally was also longer in Rio versus London. In conclusion, the timing factors of badminton singles were dissimilar in London 2012 and Rio 2016 for both men and women. This information may help players and coaches manage different workout types or, more specifically, competition schedules that are adapted to suit modern badminton’s characteristics.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAMERAWORK, ATHLETE, VENUE AND CITYSCAPE COMPOSING OLYMPIC-SCAPE

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAMERAWORK, ATHLETE, VENUE AND CITYSCAPE COMPOSING OLYMPIC-SCAPE

Olympic Games as Mega-Sport Events: Some Social-Historical Reflections on Recent Summer Olympic Games

This paper analyses the recent editions of Olympic Summer Games. It examines the changes and political, economical and cultural dimensions of mega-events, underlining the links among life, culture, mediascapes and cultural identities. The analysis starts with London Olympic Games 2012 and continues with the Games in Rio 2016: the primary changes in urban infrastructures and the social, political and economical transformation of the two cities together with the great impact of Olympic ceremonies in media images are introduced in the paper, with a particular reference to the symbolic representations of opening and closing ceremonies. The above mentioned events are an imaginative tour, which links knowledge, heritage, history and global values, demonstrating the interrelation between sport and other social spheres. Sport mega-events seem to create infinite world, connected with global and local culture. The opening and closing ceremonies represent also new symbolic values, and some ‘economies of imagination’, which reform urban infrastructures and open new social identity and heritage.

The Olympic Games and the economic performance of the host city – the case of London 2012 against selected global cities

The highly competitive global environment reinforces the trend to seek new investment opportunities that have various impacts on the local economy, and staging the Olympic Games is seen as one such example. The 2012 Summer Olympic Games in London have been widely discussed and investigated due to the very ambitious plans for socioeconomic and infrastructural development prompted by the Olympic legacy framework. Based on these observations, there are two main aims of this article. The first one is to evaluate London’s post-event legacy based on a literature review. The second research goal is to assess London’s economic performance compared with reference groups of global cities by using selected economic indicators. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied in this research, such as a critical literature review, a series of figures and tables with economic indicators and descriptive statistics. Based on the literature review and the author’s own elaborations, it can be concluded that the Olympic legacy framework and the Games themselves fostered economic and urban development, especially in East London. However, positive impacts and legacies were intermingled with several adverse effects. In turn, a comparative analysis of economic performance between London as the host city and reference groups of global cities demonstrates that, in the adopted time intervals, the dynamics of changes in applied economic indicators is relatively quite similar in groups of European, North American and Australian cities. In contrast, Asian cities, as one reference group, outperformed London and other global cities for the vast majority of the adopted time span.

Why do female and male taekwondo athletes win the bout? An analysis based on the Olympic weight category and the result of the bout

Combat sports such as taekwondo, where athletes compete against an opponent require control of technique and tactics, as well as knowing the optimal performance of opponents to win the bout. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyse the Olympic competitors (London Olympic Games), according to the weight category (fly, feather, light and heavy) and according to the performance in their fighting (winner vs. loser) in each gender. An observational methodology was used, following a nomothetic, follow-up and multidimensional design of 302 individual performances. The statistical analysis used an ANOVA and T Student test for comparing frequencies. The results obtained indicate significant differences between weight categories, that is, lighter competitors performed more actions than heavier ones. Female heavier competitors performed more defensive actions (blocks and cuts) than lighter competitors. Regarding their performance, winners performed more anticipated, 1 and 3-point actions than losers who performed more indirect and spinning actions with back leg. Therefore, there is a different technical-tactical behaviour between taekwondo athletes depending on the categories and the result of the combat, suggesting to emulate winners, performing more anticipated actions to both trunk and head, as well as training the most used technical-tactical actions according to the athletes’ competition weight category.

Mega-Event Organization Considering Safety, Security and Resilience

Cities become globally significant and attract national and international interest from all over the world with the help of mega-events, such as World EXPO and the Olympic Games. Mega-events highly require the involvement of various actors working together for the same overall purpose, although these actors have the responsibility of diverse target groups and require to use different resources. In his paper, we aim to understand the role of organizations in mega-events in relation to the socio-technical systems they operate. We consider security, safety and resilience articulated in six areas: planning, construction of the site, training, collaboration, communication and legacy, in three different time slots: before, during and after the event. Results include insights to enhance multi-organizational culture-based practice. The field studies conducted in Milan in 2015 and 2016 on Milan World EXPO 2015, and in London in 2012 and 2016 on the London Olympic and Paralympic Games 2012. The research findings are based on the experience of the real actors involved in these two events. The findings suggest several courses of action for decision-makers and emergency planners to safety and security design strategies that can facilitate resilience as a legacy of a mega-event.

Bivariate analysis of taekwondo actions: The effectiveness of techniques and tactics in an Olympic taekwondo championship

This paper describes the effectiveness of technical-tactical actions performed during a tournament. A total of 14,145 actions of the 2012 London Olympic Games were analysed. Differences emerged in the use of tactics, techniques, zones, legs and guard to score. Regarding tactics, anticipatory counterattacks were the most effective for scoring one and three points. Circular techniques were the most effective for scoring one point, linear to score three points, and spin techniques to score two and four points. Actions to the chest results in a score of one to two points and actions to the head in a score of three to four points. The rear leg was more effective in scoring one, two and four points. A close guard was more effective for scoring two points. It is suggested that coaches and athletes pursue training in the aforementioned technical-tactical actions according to the score they desire to obtain during bouts.