Loess Research Research Articles

<sup>18</sup>O analyses of bulk lipids as novel paleoclimate tool in loess research – a pilot study

Abstract. The analysis of the stable oxygen isotopes 18O and 16O has revolutionized paleoclimate research since the middle of the last century. Particularly, δ18O of ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica is used as a paleotemperature proxy, and δ18O of deep-sea sediments is used as a proxy for global ice volume. Important terrestrial archives to which δ18O as a paleoclimate proxy is successfully applied are speleothems, lake sediments, or tree rings. By contrast, δ18O applications to loess–paleosol sequences (LPSs) are scarce. Here we present a first continuous δ18O record (n=50) for the LPS Crvenka in Serbia, southeastern Europe, spanning the last glacial–interglacial cycle (since 145 ka). From a methodological point of view, we took advantage of a recently proposed paleoclimate/paleohydrological proxy based on bulk δ18O analyses of plant-derived lipids. The Crvenka δ18Obulk lipid values range between −10.2 ‰ and +23.0 ‰ and are systematically more positive in the interglacial and interstadial (paleo-)soils corresponding to marine oxygen-isotope stage (MIS) 1, 3, and 5, compared to the loess layers (MIS 2, 4, and 6). Our Crvenka δ18Obulk lipid record provides no evidence for the occurrence of interstadials and stadials comparable to the Dansgaard–Oeschger events known from the Greenland δ18Oice core records. Concerning the interpretation of our Crvenka δ18Obulk lipid record, plant-derived lipids such as fatty acids and alcohols are certainly strongly influenced by climatic factors such as temperature (via δ18Oprecipitation) and relative air humidity (via 18O enrichment of leaf water due to evapotranspiration). However, pool effects in the form of non-water-correlated lipids such as sterols or the input of root-derived lipids need to be considered, too. Similarly, the input of soil-microbial lipids and oxygen exchange reactions represent uncertainties challenging quantitative paleoclimate/paleohydrological reconstructions based on δ18Obulk lipid analyses from LPSs.

Assessment of Common Cyanotoxins in Cyanobacteria of Biological Loess Crusts.

Cyanotoxins are a diverse group of bioactive compounds produced by cyanobacteria that have adverse effects on human and animal health. While the phenomenon of cyanotoxin production in aquatic environments is well studied, research on cyanotoxins in terrestrial environments, where cyanobacteria abundantly occur in biocrusts, is still in its infancy. Here, we investigated the potential cyanotoxin production in cyanobacteria-dominated biological loess crusts (BLCs) from three different regions (China, Iran, and Serbia) and in cyanobacterial cultures isolated from the BLCs. The presence of cyanotoxins microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins, and β-N-methylamino-L-alanine was analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, while the presence of cyanotoxin-encoding genes (mcyE, cyrJ, sxtA, sxtG, sxtS, and anaC) was investigated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. We could not detect any of the targeted cyanotoxins in the biocrusts or the cyanobacterial cultures, nor could we amplify any cyanotoxin-encoding genes in the cyanobacterial strains. The results are discussed in terms of the biological role of cyanotoxins, the application of cyanobacteria in land restoration programs, and the use of cyanotoxins as biosignatures of cyanobacterial populations in loess research. The article highlights the need to extend the field of research on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin production to terrestrial environments.

The past in dust: current trends and future directions in Pleistocene geoarcheology of European loess

ABSTRACTLoess is a main archive of Pleistocene landscapes and environments and therefore has an important connection to the preservation and interpretation of Paleolithic sites. In Europe, anthropogenic sites have been found in loess because of past local occupation. At one extreme, sites are well preserved with minimal disturbance often accompanied by embedded proxies to estimate ecological parameters. On the other hand, loess deposits have undergone post‐depositional alterations such as weathering, pedogenesis or bioturbation due to changing environmental conditions or other disturbances that obscure anthropogenic sites. We outline the current state of research and connections between Paleolithic archeology and loess research while introducing a series of subsequent regional case studies as part of a special issue. We also make recommendations for future work to incorporate a wider variety of methods to create more robust inferences on hominin and environmental evolution and their connections.

Potential of cyanobacterial secondary metabolites as biomarkers for paleoclimate reconstruction

Loess is the most important archive of Quaternary palaeoclimate evolution, with more thorough and systematic investigations carried out in the past two decades in the Carpathian Basin. Application of novel proxies in loess research could improve the state of knowledge of the past climatic changes. In order to examine the feasibility of cyanobacterial pigments to be used as biomarkers in paleoclimate reconstruction and thereby substantiate the presence of cyanobacterial community during loess accumulation, geochemical evidence of cyanobacteria-specific biomarkers in the sediment is required. In this study structurally different cyanobacterial metabolites were examined for their potential to be used as biomarkers. These compounds included scytonemin wavelength equivalent (SWE) and mycosporine wavelength equivalent (MWE) compounds.The effect of various physico-chemical factors (pH value, temperature and light source) on the production of SWE and MWE compounds in correlation with the nitrogen content of the growth medium was studied. SWE compounds were observed in 8 out of 15 soil and aquatic cyanobacterial strains, while MWE compounds were found in all 15 strains. The results show that exposure to UV light induced a higher synthesis of both pigments.Moreover, the presence of SWE compounds was confirmed in cyanobacterial cultures isolated from biological loess crusts (BLCs) as well as in BLC and loess sediment samples. The potential application of these pigment groups as biomarkers in paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic reconstruction is discussed.

Experiencing new perspectives in the application of reflectance spectroscopy in loess research

Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) parameters, such as the redness index and hematite/goethite ratios are popular in the study of loess-paleosol sequences. The suggested parameters, however, have their limitations: only some parts of the whole reflectance spectrum are being used, and the spectra of some important components may be excluded from the analysis.A mathematical statistical method, hierarchical cluster analysis, was applied to the loess-paleosol succession at Malá nad Hronom (Slovak Republic) in order to characterize the entire reflectance spectrum and to classify sediment groups. The sedimentary units were classified into seven different cluster groups such as sediments, weak and well-developed paleosols. The distribution of the spectral features in the reflectance spectra was located by using the key-wavelength, provided by the Wilk's lambda analysis. The key-minerals, which play an important role in the classification, were determined by characteristic extrema in the second derivative of reflectance spectra of the seven reference minerals (hematite, goethite, muscovite, illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite and calcite).Mineral groups influence certain wavelengths within the measured range, therefore curve sections modified by individual minerals only in a few cases. The mentioned mineral groups refer to characteristics of the formation environment and to climate change during the Pleistocene.

Ferdinand von Richthofen’s loess research in China

Ferdinand von Richthofen (1833–1905), a great German geographer and geologist, was well known for his loess research in China. Here we reexamine the background of Richthofen’s loess research and review his contributions and limitations according to the existing literature. An important historical background of Richthofen’s loess research was that foreigners have been authorized to travel in the interior of China since the 1860s as a result of the Treaties of Tientsin. Richthofen made seven comprehensive scientific explorations in China in 1868–1872, whereas loess research was just one of his topics. He experienced dust weather on the Loess Plateau, where he had direct and deep impressions of the transport of dust, which should have helped him develop the hypothesis of the Aeolian origin of loess. Apart from the Aeolian hypothesis, his other achievements include the differentiation of the regenerated loess from the original loess, the discovery of the loess near Nanjing, the identification of the desiccated lakes as sources of dust storms, and the identification of “vertical cleavage” as a major property of loess.

Origin and evolution of modern loess science – 1824 to 1964

Loess is the most important aeolian deposit of the Quaternary and plays an important role in explorations of the evolution of paleoclimate and paleoenvironment. In recent years, historians of science have been working on how loess research originated, developed, and was promoted in Europe in the early 19th century. The Chinese community has a clear history of the loess research from the late 20th century. However, it remains unclear when and how modern loess studies were communicated between western and eastern academic societies and who contributed to the development and dissemination of modern loess knowledge, especially from the western to the eastern societies. Based on books, essays, memoirs, travel notes, published letters, and other types of records from geologists, such as K. Leonhard (1779–1862), C. Lyell (1797–1875), and R. Pumpelly (1837–1923), the present study clarifies the way and process by which loess research originated from the Rhine valley and spread to Britain onto the United States and, in particular, China. It was discovered that loess was formally defined in 1824 in the Rhine valley. In the 1830s, L. Horner (1785–1864) and Lyell introduced loess research from the Rhine valley to Britain. At the same time, Lyell put forward the theory of the fluvial origin of loess and verified his theory by expanding study areas to the United States. In 1866, Pumpelly, the first foreign geologist investigating Chinese loess, put forward lacustrine formation of loess. Pumpelly’s hypothesis was soon argued against in 1870 by F. von Richthofen (1833–1905), who thought loess was formed via an aeolian mode based on a wide investigation in the Loess Plateau of China. Although the above main hypotheses originated based on investigations of Chinese loess, they were not disseminated to China and received by Chinese scholars in a timely manner, and the local loess research in China launched almost 130 years later by the stimulation from work by scholars of the Soviet Union.

The first loess map and related topics: contributions by twenty significant women loess scholars

AbstractWomen scholars have contributed to the study of loess. Charlotte Hibbert made the first map of loess distribution and there were many subsequent achievements. The twenty people selected represent a subjective choice; there is no overall biobibliographical metric that can be applied. The twenty are mss: Hibbert, Owen, Swineford, Conea, Marković-Marjanović, Fotakieva, Ivanova, Davin, Coude-Gaussen, Wintle, Matviishina, Gerasimenko, Billard, Grabowska-Olszewska, Sycheva, Mavlyanova, Rendell,Łanczont, Klukanova, Morozova. The INQUA Loess Commission provides a convenient temporal divide, and also a divide in style of loess investigation: early studies pre-Commission; Loess Commission activities; modern scientific loess research post-Commission (after 2003).TopicsHypotheses of loess formation, aeolian vs. fluvial, aeolian vs. in-situ, desert loess, Danubian loess, INQUA Loess Commission, Dating techniques, hydroconsolidation, loessification, Ukraine, Russia, Central Asia, loess structure.The paper by Jelena Marković-Marjanović in the 1961 INQUA Loess Symposium was one of the key pioneering documents in the development of loess stratigraphy; it should be more widely recognized.

Liu Tungsheng: A geologist from a traditional Chinese cultural background who became an international star of science

Liu Tungsheng (1917–2008) resumed his scientific career and became actively involved on the international stage in the field of Quaternary Sciences after 1982, at the age of 65, following Deng Xiaoping’s ‘Reform and Open Up’ policy, after his first international publication of China loess research published in 1950s. Though his best known contribution to Quaternary research is his pioneering study of the extensive loess deposits of China, several other important scientific contributions are less widely known, as they were published in Chinese. By studying about 400 well-preserved fieldwork notebooks left by Liu Tungsheng, as well as many biographical and personal photographic collections, we have mapped his remarkable life during his 91-year journey and the contributions to geoscience. From a historical point of view, Liu Tungsheng created a unique chapter in the history of modern geological science in China in his role as a geologist emerging from a traditional Chinese cultural background who became a star on the international scientific stage.

Four loess pioneers: Charles Lyell, F. von Richthofen, V.A. Obruchev, L.S. Berg

The four loess pioneers were Charles Lyell, Ferdinand von Richthofen, Vladimir Obruchev and Lev Berg. Their life spans covered the period 1797–1956. They each contributed significant thoughts and ideas to the development of the study of loess deposits. Their loessic ideas can be related to their life experiences and to their own particular approaches to their chosen branches of science. Their ideas can also be set in a framework of scientific development at a time when scientific knowledge was increasing rapidly and new fields and areas of study were being demarcated. The directions that they indicated and the ideas that they implanted still influence loess research today, and some problems that they touched on remain unresolved. The basic Lyell idea of lacustrine or fluvial deposition followed by uplift held sway from about 1830 till around 1880. Richthofen developed his ideas on aeolian deposition from 1870 and Obruchev developed his ideas after the Potanin expedition, in 1895. Berg offered his concept of loess formation by weathering and soil formation in 1916, and was a keen proponent until his death in 1950. Many scholars offered ideas and proposals on the problem of loess deposit formation but the four chosen individuals appear to predominate, and have delivered the paradigms that have shaped loess research since the 1830s. Richthofen has probably acquired a little too much credit for the aeolian theory, and Obruchev not enough. Obruchev delivered a fully worked out aeolian approach which encompassed post-depositional changes to the loess material. Berg, with his total concentration on post depositional changes was only considering half a picture. Some of his ideas were important but his one eyed view meant that many scholars neglected them.

Loess in Armenia – stratigraphic findings and palaeoenvironmental indications

Current loess research indicates a better understanding of the factors that determine the ways that loess (dust) accumulation and soil formation has responded to the rapid and variable Late Quaternary climatic changes across Europe and Western Asia. Lack of evidence of loess in the region between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea creates a critical gap in the geographical distribution of this deposit and hence inhibits our ability to examine properly the spatial distribution and processes of formation. The recent discovery of loess-palaeosol sequences in Armenia allows us to overcome this problem and preliminary investigations have yielded encouraging results. A research programme has been established to characterise, analyse and date sequences from NE-Armenia that are up to 45m thick. This paper presents first results of this study and reports three well-developed pedocomplexes below a Holocene soil. The magnetic properties of the loess indicate mainly Caucasian sources and all palaeosols exhibit clear magnetic enhancement. Luminescence dating of the upper part of the sequences identifies deposition between 150 and 39ka. During that period, loess deposition took place during MIS 6/4 and 3. A multiphase pedocomplex that documents progressive climate transition from initially humid to arid conditions, could be placed into MIS 5, although we found striking temporal offset between the phase of most intense soil formation and the Last Interglacial climatic optimum. Furthermore, colluvial slope deposits and erosional discordances provide information on distinct phases of landscape instability that are linked to interglacial periods and the transition to glacial conditions.

Granulometrical, mineralogical and geochemical characterization of loess deposits in the Tajo Basin

Loess research has the merit of enabling reconstructions of Pleistocene sedimentation dynamics in many parts of the world. However, there is still very few information regarding the occurrence of loess deposits in the Mediterranean area, even though such records may provide a unique opportunity to investigate landscape evolution for a period for which terrestrial archives are very rare in this region. This paper presents the first results of investigations on a loess sequence in the middle Tajo Valley in central Spain. Findings from detailed granulometrical, mineralogical, geochemical, and grain morphological analyses help to give a first overview on character and composition of these deposits. Very high levels of carbonates (∼60%), but also of gypsum, both to large extents of primary origin, indicate the incorporation of material derived from marls and limestone. Furthermore, we found evidence that allows deduction of possible loess proveniences more precisely. Dolomite contents of up to 20% indicate that the Iberian Range might have been an important source area of loess sediments. The fact that these uplands are located to the east seems to be opposed to the common assumption of prevailing west winds for glacial periods. The studied sequence (Paraiso profile) is one of seven sections that have been investigated as part of a programme to reconstruct Upper Pleistocene landscape dynamics in central Spain. In this context, the detailed characterisation of sediment properties is crucial for discussing loess proveniences and sedimentary environments.

The history of Danube loess research

The loess-paleosol sequences of the Danube basin contain the longest and most complete terrestrial records of Middle and Late Pleistocene paleoclimates in Europe. Consequently it is no surprise that scientific research into European loess began in this region and has a long and distinguished history. European loess research was initiated by Count Marsigli in the Serbian Vojvodina in the late 17th century, formed the focus of the international Loess Commission which straddled both sides of the Iron Curtain from 1961, and culminated with George Kukla's seminal studies in the 1970s correlating the loess archives with deep-sea sediments. The rise in popularity of the longer Chinese loess sequences in the early 1980s shifted the international research focus away from Europe, and it was not until the change of century that scientific investigation intensified in the region – this time with much more sophisticated tools for analysis.Despite its potential as one of Europe's most valuable Quaternary archives, scientific research into Danube loess has until recently been hindered both by landscape heterogeneity and the large number of countries it covers. These have presented a major limiting factor in developing a unified research approach. For decades, regional/national loess stratigraphic models were defined separately. Difficulties in correlating such schemes persist, especially since these often change significantly with advances in dating methodologies. A cooperative effort is necessary to synthesize the available data, which requires not only the insights from but also the perspective provided by an appreciation of the history of the research.In this study we present a critical historical overview of loess research in the Danube region. We classify the major research phases throughout the long tradition of Danube loess investigations into five categories: (1) the Early period (late 17th century until 1920) extending from Marsigli to Penck; (2) the Classic period (1920–1961) encompassing the contributions of Milanković and the development of pedostratigraphy; (3) the Modern period (1961-present) which oversaw Czech innovations and developments in geochronologic methods, in particular Amino Acid Racemisation (AAR) and luminescence dating; and (4) Contemporary research from Bronger's unified pedostratigraphy to orbitally-tuned timescales. Finally, (5) we present a vision of future Danube loess research.

Exposing mammoths: From loess research discovery to public palaeontological park

This paper is dedicated to the palaeontological and geoheritage potential and conservation values of recently discovered mammoth fossils in the Drmno open-cast mine area. These palaeontological resources provide an excellent basis for the establishment of the first ever palaeontological park in Serbia. In addition, the paper also proposes possible interpretation methods and to determine the current state and tourism potential of the Drmno mammoth fossils, by using the M-GAM model for geosite assessment and comparing this site with two similar world famous sites, the Mammoth Site of Hot Springs and the La Brea Tar Pits in the USA. Results of the assessment indicate that the fossils from the Drmno open mine have similar scientific and educational values as the fossils from two other analysed sites, whereas scenic and tourist values are much lower in comparison with those sites. This means that the Drmno site possesses great potential and resources which should be used and managed in a better way. Hopefully, the newly constructed palaeontological park with all of its supporting infrastructure and newly employed people will eliminate the currently existing gap between the Drmno fossil site and other similar world famous fossil sites.

Appreciating loess landscapes through history: the basis of modern loess geotourism in the Vojvodina region of North Serbia

Abstract Loess is wind-blown sediment that covers extensive areas in the middle latitudes. Much of the loess in Eastern and Central–Eastern Europe has been redeposited by the River Danube and its tributaries. The case study area (Vojvodina region) encompasses the confluence area of the Danube, Sava and Tisa rivers. This region includes the most complete and the thickest loess–palaeosol sequences found in Europe, a valuable record of palaeo-climates over the past two million years only recognized in the closing decades of the twentieth century. Long before then however, several enthusiasts, engineers and travellers recognized and appreciated loess as a significant natural phenomenon. Among them was Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (1658–1730) who gave the first scientific description of European loess in his outstanding multivolume work Danubius Pannonico Mysicus where he drew and explained notable loess–palaeosol exposures along the Danube River. Many other loess observations were also recorded by a number of international travellers, whose illustrated travelogues (mainly published in the nineteenth century) mentioned and illustrated loess observations along the Danube and its major tributaries. This chapter explores the interplay of scientific loess research and its geo-historical literary aspects as the foundations of modern loess geotourism.

Sárga föld, lősz, lösz: Short historical overview of loess research and lithostratigraphy in Hungary

The over 150 years of Hungarian loess research can be divided into three main phases. (1) The first phase is the early times of the Hungarian loess research from the 1850s until the beginning of the 20th century. This was the time of recognition, definition of loess, and the birth of the first ideas about the origin of loess, following the international scientific trends. However, independent ideas were developed in Hungary, inspired by the main trends. One of the most complex ideas was Koch's ‘loess-sea’-idea, which describes the origin and deposition of the material of loess from the denudation processes to glaciers, fluvial transport, and the accumulation of the fine grained material in a giant freshwater lake located in the middle of the Carpathian Basin.(2) The second phase, the golden age of loess research, is separated into two periods. The first period was the investigation and classification of the material of loess (e.g. studies of source area of loess) finishing with the definition of the paleosols, and their connection to the polyglacial interpretation of the ice age (from the start of the 20th century until the 1930s). The first and detailed lithostratigraphical subdivision of Hungarian loess was in the spotlight of the second period of the second phase. The aim of the studies was the correlation of the layers of some key sections, and the glacial and interglacial phase of the Pleistocene (e.g. correlation of different proxies with the ‘astrocyclostratigraphical’ Milanković curve, or later with the oxygen isotope curves).(3) Nowadays, some studies try to advance a deeper understanding the complex mechanism working in the glacial (stadial), interglacial (interstadial), or transition periods of the Pleistocene. Recent studies are part of the beginning of the third phase.

Karl Caesar von Leonhard (1779–1862), and the beginnings of loess research in the Rhine valley

The term ‘Loess’ entered the scientific vocabulary in 1824 in section 89 of ‘Charakteristik der Felsarten’ by Karl Caesar von Leonhard (a two page definition and description, plus details of a few locations). The term had been used before 1824, but Leonhard places it firmly into the literature. There were alternatives; Leonhard made a choice. Interest in loess developed in the early 1820s, perhaps in association with interest in the geology of the Rhine volcanoes. Possibly the first fairly detailed study of loess was by H.G. Bronn in 1830. After 1830 Hibbert, Horner and Lyell carried forward the study/appreciation of loess in English. Charles Lyell (in Principles of Geology) listed ten pioneers: Bronn, Leonhard, Boue, Voltz, Noeggerath, Steininger, Merian, Rozet, Von Meyer and Hibbert. Early ideas of loess formation emphasized the role of deposition from water, perhaps influenced by the advocacy of Boue for continent wide inundations. Leonhard was an important figure and deserves his position as the most significant loess pioneer. Lyell was largely responsible for the spread of interest in loess, via The Principles of Geology.

The chronological position of the Lohne Soil in the Nussloch loess section – re-evaluation for a European loess-marker horizon

The loess section of Nussloch in southwestern Germany is a key profile for the reconstruction of the terrestrial palaeo-environment of central Europe at the time of the Last Glacial and Interglacial. Recently, the significance of the site for palaeo-environmental and geoarchaeological research increased additionally, with the discovery of unique Palaeolithic cultural remains from anatomically and culturally modern humans that invaded southwestern Germany during the Weichselian (Würmian) Pleniglacial period. At Nussloch, a chrono-stratigraphical key position is taken by a Middle Pleniglacial Cambisol remain which, under the designation Lohne Soil, serves as an important pedostratigraphic marker horizon for the greater area. Repeatedly, Greenland interstadial (GIS) 8 was suggested as a likely period of soil formation for the Lohne Soil. This interpretation is yet not justified on the basis of published chronometric data. Critical assessment of the data points to a later period of soil formation, likely during GIS7 to GIS5. This conclusion is supported by a new set of radiocarbon ages for the Nussloch site which are presented here for the first time. Consequences of a revised chronology for correlations of Pleniglacial Cryosols below and above the Lohne Soil with Greenland interstadials are discussed. The implications are important for European loess research as the Nussloch section serves as a reference base for loess sections throughout Europe.

Novel methodological approaches in loess research – interrogating biomarkers and compound-specific stable isotopes

Abstract. Löss-Paläoboden Sequenzen sind wichtige terrestrische Archive für die Rekonstruktion der quartären Landschafts- und Klimageschichte. Die Entwicklung neuer, quantitativerer Paläoklima-Proxies könnte in den kommenden Jahren eine neue Ära in der Lössforschung einleiten. Dieser Review-Artikel stellt die Prinzipien, die zugrunde liegende Analytik, und erste Anwendungsbeispiele für einige dieser Proxies vor, welche derzeit entwickelt werden. Wir diskutieren das Potential von (i) pflanzenwachsbürtigen n-Alkanen als Biomarker für die Rekonstruktion der Vegetationsgeschichte, (ii) Aminosäure Razemisierung und Glycerin-Dialkyl-Glycerin-Tetraether (GDGT) Indizes als Proxies für die Rekonstruktion der Paläotemperatur und (iii) substanzspezifischen δD and δ18O Analysen an pflanzenbürtigen n-Alkanen bzw. Zuckern für die Entwicklung von Proxies zur Rekonstruktion von Paläoklima/-aridität. Während wir versuchen, die Leserschaft für die methodischen und analytischen Neuentwicklungen und deren Potential für die Lössforschung zu begeistern, verweisen wir gleichzeitig auch auf die Limitierungen und Schwächen der jeweiligen Methoden. So müssen beispielsweise Degradationseffekte oder postsedimentäre ‚Kontamination’ bei der Interpretation von Biomarker-Rekords berücksichtigt und weiter untersucht werden. Des Weiteren könnte sich die Quantifizierung der unterschiedlichen Einflussfaktoren auf Deuterium- und 18O-Rekords als herausfordernd erweisen.

Franz Ritter von Hauer’s work and one of the first loess map of Central Europe

Franz Ritter von Hauer was the second Director of the Geological Survey in Vienna (1866–1885). The primary research of von Hauer was devoted chiefly to the evolutionary history of Cephalopods and geological mapping. Among several investigations of Cephalopods of the Triassic and Jurassic formations of the Alpine regions, he recognized and discovered 89 species and established the Middle and Late Triassic stratigraphical units of deep shelf environments: the Hallstadt facies. One of his main contributions to Quaternary science was the geology textbook of the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which provided a resource to access recent developments in geology and notably loess research to many scientists. Besides the staff from the Geological Survey, von Hauer involved numerous local, well recognized experts and organized regional centres for geological investigations. This well managed and effective work resulted in a great number of publications, many of which were the reports published by the Geological Survey. The General Geological Map of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was one of the most comprehensive and complete geological map of Central Europe during that period of time. It was presented in Cologne (1865) and from 1867 until 1884 ran to four editions. The Quaternary formations were presented in two groups: Pleistocene and Holocene formations. The Pleistocene formations identified as “Dilluvial” formations and were represented predominantly as gravels and sand and also as loess. The Holocene formations were described as “Alluvial” formations. They were mapped as: peat, lime tuff, quicksand and other formations named only as “Alluvial formations”. Loess was mentioned exclusively as a Pleistocene (“Dilluvial”) formation. The distribution of loess was clearly outlined. Due to the development of the science at that time, the term loess was not clearly defined and as such at some places, loess-like sediments such as colluvial were also mapped as loess. Nevertheless it was one of the first maps which documented the extent of loess deposits and including the regions of Lower Austria with Vienna Basin, Bohemia and Moravia, the Carpathian Basin, parts of the Polish Lowland and Transylvania.