Local System Research Articles

Developing children's local food programs: One volunteer's perspective

While volunteers are widespread in U.S. local food systems, they have not been the focus of data collection or research. As a result, we have limited understanding of the perspectives and motivations of local food volunteers. In this reflective essay, I describe my insights from volunteering in Alexan­dria, Virginia. The two initiatives that I focus on were to establish a “Power of Produce” program at my local farmers market and an after-school culinary and gardening program at a private ele­mentary school. The former program I have been able to sustain for three years (as of this writing), whereas the latter program was discontinued after two eight-week sessions. In this essay, I describe my motivations in conceptualizing and organizing these programs. I also describe challenges I encoun­tered due to inexperience or capacity constraints as a volunteer. I conclude by discussing how additional research that examines the roles and motivations of volunteers could be valuable.

Strengthening China’s National Essential Public Health Services Package for hypertension and diabetes care: protocol for an interrupted time series study with mixed-methods process evaluation and health economic evaluation

BackgroundDespite major primary health care (PHC) reforms in China with the 2009 launch of the National Essential Public Health Service Package, the country experiences many challenges in improving the management of non-communicable diseases in PHC facilities. “EMERALD” is a multifaceted implementation strategy to strengthen the management of hypertension and type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in PHC facilities. The study aims to: (1) examine the effectiveness of EMERALD in improving hypertension and T2DM management; (2) evaluate the implementation of the interventions; and (3) use the study findings to model the long-term health economic impact of the interventions.MethodsThe EMERALD intervention components include: (1) empowerment for PHC providers through training and capacity building; (2) empowerment for patient communities through multi-media health education; and (3) empowerment for local health administrators through health data monitoring and strengthening governance of local PHC programs. An interrupted time series design will be used to determine the effectiveness of the interventions based on routinely collected health data extracted from local health information systems. The primary effectiveness outcome is the guideline-recommended treatment rates for people with hypertension and T2DM. Secondary effectiveness outcomes include hypertension and T2DM diagnosis and control rates, and enrolment and adherence rates to the recommended care processes in the National Essential Public Health Service Package. A mixed-methods process evaluation will be conducted to evaluate the implementation of the interventions, including the reach of the target population, adequacy of adoption, level of implementation fidelity, and maintenance. Qualitative interviews with policy makers, health administrators, PHC providers, and patients with hypertension and/or T2DM will be conducted to further identify factors influencing the implementation. In addition, health economic modelling will be performed to explore the long-term incremental costs and benefits of the interventions.DiscussionThis study is expected to generate important evidence on the effectiveness, implementation, and health economic impact of complex PHC interventions to strengthen the primary care sector’s contribution to addressing the growing burden of non-communicable diseases in China.Trial registrationThe study has been registered on Chinese Clinical Trial Registry at https://www.chictr.org.cn/ (Registration number ChiCTR2400082036, on March 19th 2024).

Unraveling the complex interconnections between food-energy-water nexus sustainability and the supply-demand of related ecosystem services

Matching the supply and demand of related ecosystem services can be an effective way to realize long-term sustainable management of the food-energy-water nexus (FEW Nexus) in drylands. However, few studies have focused on the matching of supply and demand for ecosystem services associated with advancing the sustainability of FEW-Nexus, there is limited research in this domain, which lacks systematic and quantitative analysis of the relationship between them and FEW Nexus sustainability. Here, this research takes the West Liaohe River Basin in the arid region of China as a case study. Based on a localized FEW Nexus sustainability evaluation index system, the FEW Nexus sustainability and the supply-demand matching characteristics of the corresponding ecosystem services in the West Liaohe River Basin from 2005 to 2015 were assessed. The relationship between them was analyzed quantitatively through the methods of coupling coordination degree and geographical detector. The results showed a synergistic improvement in both FEW Nexus sustainability and the supply-demand situation of combined ecosystem services. The supply of food production and water yield were able to meet their demands adequately from 2005 to 2015, with a strengthening surplus, leading to an overall surplus and gradual improvement in the integrated ecosystem services. This surplus synergistically promoted the process of FEW Nexus sustainability. The results of the geographical detector indicate that the supply-demand ratio of carbon sequestration was the main factor influencing FEW Nexus sustainability. Areas with higher FEW Nexus sustainability tended to have larger deficits in carbon sequestration, which was more evident in areas with high levels of urbanization. Therefore, the key to enhancing FEW Nexus sustainability in the basin is to balance the supply of and demand for carbon sequestration services. Overall, the present study not only provides a basis for strengthening the management of the supply-demand of ecosystem services associated with FEW to achieve regional sustainable development, but also offers insights into how the growing demand for the FEW Nexus is exerting pressure on the balance between supply and demand of related ecosystem services.

An Automated Machine Learning Approach to the Retrieval of Daily Soil Moisture in South Korea Using Satellite Images, Meteorological Data, and Digital Elevation Model

Soil moisture is a critical parameter that significantly impacts the global energy balance, including the hydrologic cycle, land–atmosphere interactions, soil evaporation, and plant growth. Currently, soil moisture is typically measured by installing sensors in the ground or through satellite remote sensing, with data retrieval facilitated by reanalysis models such as the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Reanalysis 5 (ERA5) and the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS). However, the suitability of these methods for capturing local-scale variabilities is insufficiently validated, particularly in regions like South Korea, where land surfaces are highly complex and heterogeneous. In contrast, artificial intelligence (AI) approaches have shown promising potential for soil moisture retrieval at the local scale but have rarely demonstrated substantial products for spatially continuous grids. This paper presents the retrieval of daily soil moisture (SM) over a 500 m grid for croplands in South Korea using random forest (RF) and automated machine learning (AutoML) models, leveraging satellite images and meteorological data. In a blind test conducted for the years 2013–2019, the AutoML-based SM model demonstrated optimal performance, achieving a root mean square error of 2.713% and a correlation coefficient of 0.940. Furthermore, the performance of the AutoML model remained consistent across all the years and months, as well as under extreme weather conditions, indicating its reliability and stability. Comparing the soil moisture data derived from our AutoML model with the reanalysis data from sources such as the European Space Agency Climate Change Initiative (ESA CCI), GLDAS, the Local Data Assimilation and Prediction System (LDAPS), and ERA5 for the South Korea region reveals that our AutoML model provides a much better representation. These experiments confirm the feasibility of AutoML-based SM retrieval, particularly for local agrometeorological applications in regions with heterogeneous land surfaces like South Korea.

Hydrogels as a Potential Biomaterial for Multimodal Therapeutic Applications.

Hydrogels, composed of hydrophilic polymer networks, have emerged as versatile materials in biomedical applications due to their high water content, biocompatibility, and tunable properties. They mimic natural tissue environments, enhancing cell viability and function. Hydrogels' tunable physical properties allow for tailored antibacterial biomaterial, wound dressings, cancer treatment, and tissue engineering scaffolds. Their ability to respond to physiological stimuli enables the controlled release of therapeutics, while their porous structure supports nutrient diffusion and waste removal, fostering tissue regeneration and repair. In wound healing, hydrogels provide a moist environment, promote cell migration, and deliver bioactive agents and antibiotics, enhancing the healing process. For cancer therapy, they offer localized drug delivery systems that target tumors, minimizing systemic toxicity and improving therapeutic efficacy. Ocular therapy benefits from hydrogels' capacity to form contact lenses and drug delivery systems that maintain prolonged contact with the eye surface, improving treatment outcomes for various eye diseases. In mucosal delivery, hydrogels facilitate the administration of therapeutics across mucosal barriers, ensuring sustained release and the improved bioavailability of drugs. Tissue regeneration sees hydrogels as scaffolds that mimic the extracellular matrix, supporting cell growth and differentiation for repairing damaged tissues. Similarly, in bone regeneration, hydrogels loaded with growth factors and stem cells promote osteogenesis and accelerate bone healing. This article highlights some of the recent advances in the use of hydrogels for various biomedical applications, driven by their ability to be engineered for specific therapeutic needs and their interactive properties with biological tissues.

Do Gendered Social Roles Drive Knowledge Variation in Local Medical Systems?

Do Gendered Social Roles Drive Knowledge Variation in Local Medical Systems?

External Steering of Vine Robots via Magnetic Actuation.

This article explores the concept of external magnetic control for vine robots to enable their high curvature steering and navigation for use in endoluminal applications. Vine robots, inspired by natural growth and locomotion strategies, present unique shape adaptation capabilities that allow passive deformation around obstacles. However, without additional steering mechanisms, they lack the ability to actively select the desired direction of growth. The principles of magnetically steered growing robots are discussed, and experimental results showcase the effectiveness of the proposed magnetic actuation approach. We present a 25-mm-diameter vine robot with an integrated magnetic tip capsule, including 6 degrees of freedom (DOF) localization system and camera, and demonstrate a minimum bending radius of 3.85 cm with an internal pressure of 30 kPa. Furthermore, we evaluate the robot's ability to form tight curvature through complex navigation tasks, with magnetic actuation allowing for extended free-space navigation without buckling. The suspension of the magnetic tip was also validated using the 6 DOF localization system to ensure that the shear-free nature of vine robots was preserved. Additionally, by exploiting the magnetic wrench at the tip, we showcase preliminary results of vine retraction. The findings contribute to the development of controllable vine robots for endoluminal applications, providing high tip force and shear-free navigation.

Experiments of Ultrasonic Positioning System with Symmetrical Array Used in Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory

The experimental environment of the JUNO is a spherical container filled with a liquid scintillator (alkylbenzene) with a diameter of about 35 m. To observe neutrino interactions in alkylbenzene with photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and to precisely measure the neutrino properties in this environment, it is necessary to design a high-precision localization system for the PMT device. In this paper, we report the design of an ultrasonic localization system with a symmetrical receiving array, based on the construction of an experimental setup that reproduces the configuration of JUNO’s environment. We show through positioning consistency and accuracy measurements that the ultrasonic localization system has a high localization accuracy and can perform effective localization in an alkylbenzene solution with 98% purity.

Tailored for vehicle horn: A novel sound source capture method

The development of a horn sound capture system, capable of replacing manual control, offers a promising solution for alleviating horn noise. Existing horn sound systems lack localization algorithms that are capable of robustly resisting interference. To address this issue, this paper introduces an innovative horn sound capture system, including hardware and algorithms for sound recognition and localization. The pivotal innovation of the system is the introduction of the Sub-SRP algorithm, an advancement of the steered-response power phase transform (SRP-PHAT). Leveraging the frequency characteristics of horn sounds, it employs a series of filtering and spectral subtraction techniques to effectively filter out non-horn noise sources. In the interference experiment and field test, the Sub-SRP algorithm achieved DOA scores of 0.96 and 0.95, respectively, showing an approximately 10% improvement compared to the existing weighted SRP-PHAT, this improvement is even more pronounced under strong interference, increasing to 17%. This improvement significantly enhances the system’s ability to accurately capture honking vehicles and resist interference. Additionally, the horn sound recognition algorithm achieved accuracy rates of 95.75% and 97.65% in the two experiments, demonstrating the system’s effectiveness. In summary, this study contributes to the advancement of urban noise management and intelligent noise control systems.

The Benefits of Positive Energy Districts: Introducing Additionality Assessment in Évora, Amsterdam and Espoo

Positive Energy Districts (PEDs) are a promising approach to urban energy transformation, aiming to optimize local energy systems and deliver environmental, social and economic benefits. However, their effectiveness and justification for investment rely on understanding the additional value they provide (additionality) in comparison to current policies and planning methods. The additionality perspective is not used yet in current evaluations of PED demonstrations and pilots. Therefore, this paper introduces the concept of additionality in the evaluation of PEDs, focusing on the additional benefits they bring and the circumstances under which they are most effective. We discuss the additionality of PEDs in addressing the challenges of climate neutrality and energy system transformation in three European cities that are funded by the European Commission’s H2020 Programme. It should be noted that given the ongoing status of these projects, the assessment is mainly based on preliminary results, as monitoring is still ongoing and quantitative results are not yet available. The paper discusses the drivers and barriers specific to PEDs, and highlights the challenges posed by technical complexities, financing aspects and social and legal restrictions. Conclusions are drawn regarding the concept of additionality and its implications for the wider development of PEDs as a response to the challenges of climate neutrality and energy system transformation in cities. We conclude that the additionality perspective provides valuable insights into the impact and potential of PEDs for societal goals and recommend this approach for use in the final evaluation of R&I projects involving PEDs using actual monitored data on PEDs.

Farmer adaptation strategies through local farming systems in Enrekang, Indonesia

Farmers in tropical Indonesia who manage agroecological systems face multiple challenges related to food security. Despite the conditions caused by climate change, these farming households have effectively utilized agroforestry to build food security. However, prolonged dry seasons pose new constraints to their livelihood strategies. This study uses a qualitative methodology and a rural farmer livelihood framework to analyze and evaluate household livelihood strategies, attitudes, and reactions to climate change. The findings show that farmers constantly modify their management techniques using flexible and adaptive decision-making processes to cope with and minimize climate change challenges. Moreover, the role of climate variation as a significant catalyst for change in farming practices is challenging to distinguish from some of the routine problems that farmers face each year. Through knowledge accumulation and adaptive management, farmers in Enrekang utilize several livelihood adaptation strategies to reduce risks in the face of changing climate conditions. In addition, farmers utilize on-farm crops to obtain various ecosystem services that provide services such as food, nutrition, and medicine and improve ecology, nutrient cycling, and climate regulation. Further research is needed to understand how on-farm tree inclusion affects various biophysical properties and the rationale behind species selection.

Predicting Academic Performance: Correlating IELTS Scores with End-of-Term Grades in Vietnamese High School Students

English proficiency is increasingly crucial in Vietnam’s globalized landscape, with standardized tests like IELTS serving as key indicators of language ability. However, effectively translating international test scores to local grading systems remains a challenge. This study aimed to establish a reliable conversion method between IELTS scores and end-of-term grades for high school students in Vung Tau, Vietnam. Utilizing a quantitative, correlational design, we analyzed data from 371 students in grade 10 at Le Quy Don specialized school. Data sources included mock IELTS scores administered by The Forum and official end-of-term grades. Pearson correlation and linear regression analyses were employed to examine the relationship between the variables. A significant positive correlation (r =0.432,p < 0.01) was found between IELTS scores and end-of-term grades. Linear regression analysis yielded a statistically significant model (End-of-term grade = 0.501 × IELTS + 5.843) for predicting grades based on IELTS scores. A conversion table was developed to provide a practical reference for educators. This study provides a valuable tool for bridging the gap between IELTS scores and academic performance in a Vietnamese educational context. The conversion table can inform educational decision-making regarding student placement, targeted support, and curriculum development, ultimately enhancing the understanding of English proficiency expectations for students and educators alike.

Fostering Inclusive and Effective Education: Insights from Bangladesh

The inaugural issue of the 50th volume of Teacher's World: Journal of Education and Research features a collection of eight scholarly articles that explore the challenges and opportunities within Bangladesh's education sector. These articles address various facets of education, such as the struggles of marginalized communities, digital learning, and pedagogical advancements. The thematic synthesis of these articles offers significant insights into the diverse dimensions of education, encompassing issues from the obstacles faced by marginalized groups to the impacts of digital learning and innovative teaching methods. Bangladesh confronts numerous challenges in promoting inclusive and practical education due to its diverse socio-economic landscape. Economic inequalities, gender disparities, infrastructure deficiencies, and technological gaps impede students' access to quality education. The analysis of the selected articles highlights that government initiatives aimed at equitable resource allocation and inclusive education can bridge existing gaps. Strengthening community engagement can address local educational needs, ensuring accessibility and tailored support. Additionally, innovative teaching methods, such as the flipped classroom model and experiential learning, can enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. The role of public-private partnerships in mobilizing resources, expertise, and technology is crucial for improving educational infrastructure and quality. Collaborations between the government, private sector, and NGOs can create comprehensive solutions to educational challenges. Addressing these challenges and leveraging opportunities requires a multifaceted approach involving policy reform, community engagement, innovative teaching methods, and strategic partnerships. By fostering inclusive and practical education, Bangladesh can pave the way for a brighter and more equitable future for its students. Furthermore, participation in global educational initiatives and networks can introduce new perspectives, resources, and best practices, enriching the local education system and fostering continuous improvement. Teacher’s World: Journal of Education and Res arch, 50(1): 1-5

Rural Banditry and Economic Crimes: Exploring the Perceptions of Male Pastoralists’ Lived Experience in Kwara State, North-Central Nigeria

Armed banditry and insurgency are among the principal insecurity challenges in present-day Nigeria. This study investigated the lived experience of male pastoralists on rural banditry and associated economic crimes in Kwara State, north-central Nigeria to fill identified gaps in the literature. A sample of 20 pastoralists’ hamlets was selected for the study. Data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. Data analysis showed that study participants were aware of the problem of rural banditry. Major banditry-related economic crimes reported by participants were robbery and burglary, livestock rustling, farmers-herders conflicts with attendant destruction of pastoralists’ assets, among others. Through facilitation by pairwise ranking exercise within focus group sessions, study participants identified livestock rustling as the most important banditry-related economic crime. Participants carried out social profiling of livestock rustlers. Results further suggested that the key factors influencing livestock rustling were economic deprivations and social dislocation in Nigerian society, criminal networks on livestock rustling and illegal trading on rustled livestock, and access to light weapons by the livestock rustlers, among others. Participants reported the immediate and long-term effects of livestock rustling on the crime victims and their communities. The study recommends the rollout of the government-planned National Animal Identification and Traceability System, the enactment of state law that would prohibit indiscriminate livestock transportation and, the creation of a local security system to complement the state-based policing system to reduce armed banditry and livestock rustling among the study population.

The Angiotensin Type 1 Receptor: A Drug Target to Reduce the Risk of Organ Transplant Rejection

: Allograft rejection is one of the main problems that must be overcome. Evidence suggests a role of the local renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in the progress of chronic allograft injury. Angiotensin II, generated by the renin-angiotensin system, is well-known as a major regulator molecule to control the blood pressure and fluid system. Evidence suggests that this bioactive molecule and its receptor increase the risk of tissue injuries and organ transplant rejection through different molecular mechanisms such as activation of innate and cellular immunity, upregulation of inflammatory pathways, and accumulation of extracellular matrix by expression pro-fibrotic molecules like transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) to increase the risk of fibrosis. Based on these findings, AT1R antagonists might have therapeutic potential to prevent the risk of tissue injuries and allograft rejection by regulating immune response, inflammation pathway, and fibrogenesis to improve organ functions.

Electrospun patches to deliver combination drug therapy for fungal infections

Fungal infections, though affecting healthcare globally, receive insufficient attention in clinical and academic settings. Invasive fungal infections, particularly caused by combat wounds, have been identified as a critical threat by the US Department of Defense. Monotherapy with traditional antifungals is often insufficient, and so combination therapies are explored to enhance treatment efficacy. However, systemic combination treatments can result in severe adverse effects, suggesting the need for localised delivery systems, such as drug-loaded electrospun patches, to administer antifungals directly to the infection site. This proof-of-concept study hypothesised that dual amorolfine and terbinafine therapy slowly releasing from electrospun patches would be an effective way of eradicating Candida albicans when the patch was applied directly to the fungal colony. The feasibility of creating electrospun materials loaded with amorolfine and terbinafine for combination antifungal therapy was investigated. Electrospinning was used to fabricate polycaprolactone (PCL) patches with varying drug loadings (2.5%, 5%, and 10% w/w) of amorolfine and terbinafine either individually or in combination. The incorporation of both drugs in the fibres was confirmed, with the drugs predominantly in an amorphous state. Results showed that combination therapy patches had a significantly greater and prolonged antifungal effect compared to monotherapy patches, with larger zones of inhibition and sustained efficacy over at least 7 days. This study therefore demonstrates that PCL-based electrospun patches containing amorolfine and terbinafine provide superior antifungal activity against C. albicans compared to monotherapy patches. This approach could lower required drug doses, reducing adverse effects, and enhance patient compliance due to prolonged drug release, leading to more effective antifungal therapy.

Permafrost Hydrogeology of Taylor Valley, Antarctica: Insights From Deep Electrical Resistivity Tomography

AbstractGlobal warming has prompted globally widespread permafrost thawing, resulting in enhanced greenhouse gas release into the atmosphere. Studies conducted in the Northern Hemisphere reveal an alarming increase in permafrost thawing. However, similar data from Antarctica are scarce. We conducted a 2‐D Deep Electrical Resistivity Tomography (DERT) survey in Taylor Valley, Antarctica, to image the distribution of permafrost, its thicknesses, lower boundaries, and hydrogeology. Results show resistive, discontinuous domains that we suggest represent permafrost units. We also find highly conductive layers (5–10 Ω·m), between 300–350 m and 600–650 m below ground level and a shallower (∼50–100 m depth) conductive layer. The combined data set reveals a broad brine system in Taylor Valley, implying multi‐tiered groundwater circulation: a shallow, localized system linked with surface water bodies and a separate deeper, regional circulation system. The arrangement of these brines across different levels, coupled with the uneven permafrost distribution, underscores potential interplay between the two systems.

Mapping local green hydrogen cost-potentials by a multidisciplinary approach

For fast-tracking climate change response, green hydrogen is key for achieving greenhouse gas neutral energy systems. Especially Sub-Saharan Africa can benefit from it enabling an increased access to clean energy through utilizing its beneficial conditions for renewable energies. However, developing green hydrogen strategies for Sub-Saharan Africa requires highly detailed and consistent information ranging from technical, environmental, economic, and social dimensions, which is currently lacking in literature. Therefore, this paper provides a comprehensive novel approach embedding the required range of disciplines to analyze green hydrogen cost-potentials in Sub-Saharan Africa. This approach stretches from a dedicated land eligibility based on local preferences, a location specific renewable energy simulation, locally derived sustainable groundwater limitations under climate change, an optimization of local hydrogen energy systems, and a socio-economic indicator-based impact analysis. The capability of the approach is shown for case study regions in Sub-Saharan Africa highlighting the need for a unified, interdisciplinary approach.

Development of a root-zone temperature control system using air-source heat pump and its impact on the growth and yield of paprika.

By developing and implementing a local temperature control system, such as a root zone, with a high energy efficiency heat source, we can ensure both yield and energy efficiency against extreme temperatures. This system, designed with practicality in mind, has a remarkably positive impact on paprika plants' growth and yield in greenhouse cultivation. In the summer season, paprika plants were grown with no cooling, nutrient solution cooling (NSC) and the combination of NSC and substrate surround cooling (SSC) (NSC + SSC). In the case of SSC, cooled water circulated through the pipe surrounding the substrate to lower the substrate temperature. The cooling system maintains the nutrient solution temperature at 18 °C and the circulating water temperature at the system in the winter season; the paprika plants were grown with no heating (NH), nutrient solution heating (NSH) and the combination of NSH and substrate surround heating (SSH) (NSH + SSH). The heating system maintains the nutrient solution temperature at 25 °C and the circulating water temperature at 30 °C. In the summer, the root fresh and dry weights, stem fresh and dry weights, stem length and node number were increased in the NSC + SSC. In the winter season, the stem fresh and dry weights, leaf area and leaf fresh and dry weights were increased in the NSH + SSH. In both seasons, root-zone temperature control increased the fruit quality and yield. The result indicates that this easy-to-install root-zone temperature control system can be applied to the commercial greenhouse to secure paprika growth and yield in year-round cultivation.

Факторы социальной жизнестойкости арктических сельских сообществ в современной России (на материалах прибрежных и островных территорий Архангельской области)

The article focuses on the problem of factors ensuring social resilience of Arctic rural communities. Using the materials of island and coastal territories of the Primorskiy district of the Arkhangelsk Oblast, the author studies how the features of social organization and life activities of specific communities ensure their reproduction as local social systems, help them to remain resilient to external challenges of economic, environmental and other types, and allow them to adapt to the changes in the region. In order to solve these problems, the author took part in a field study on the territory of 14 rural settlements in three rural municipalities in the period from July to early September 2022. The main method of obtaining empirical data is in-depth interview. The analysis of the interviews made it possible to identify a set of key factors of resilience of the rural communities under consideration. The first factor is the ability of local residents to reorient to subsistence farming and traditional crafts in the conditions of degradation of those sectors of the local economy that imply permanent formal labor employment. The second factor is the high level of social capital of communities, which determines the normalization of mutual assistance practices. The third factor is the involvement of a part of the local population in grassroots activities: social and cultural initiatives of local residents make it possible to attract external resources to solve the problems of territorial development, as well as support the collective identity of rural community members and increase its cohesion. The fourth factor is the return of retired local natives who previously migrated from rural to urban areas.