Local Woodland Research Articles

The impacts of climate change, energy policy and traditional ecological practices on future firewood availability for Diné (Navajo) People.

Local-scale human-environment relationships are fundamental to energy sovereignty, and in many contexts, Indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) is integral to such relationships. For example, Tribal leaders in southwestern USA identify firewood harvested from local woodlands as vital. For Diné people, firewood is central to cultural and physical survival and offers a reliable fuel for energy embedded in local ecological systems. However, there are two acute problems: first, climate change-induced drought will diminish local sources of firewood; second, policies aimed at reducing reliance on greenhouse-gas-emitting energy sources may limit alternatives like coal for home use, thereby increasing firewood demand to unsustainable levels. We develop an agent-based model trained with ecological and community-generated ethnographic data to assess the future of firewood availability under varying climate, demand and IEK scenarios. We find that the long-term sustainability of Indigenous firewood harvesting is maximized under low-emissions and low-to-moderate demand scenarios when harvesters adhere to IEK guidance. Results show how Indigenous ecological practices and resulting ecological legacies maintain resilient socio-environmental systems. Insights offered focus on creating energy equity for Indigenous people and broad lessons about how Indigenous knowledge is integral for adapting to climate change. This article is part of the theme issue 'Climate change adaptation needs a science of culture'.

Timber imports to Norse Greenland: lifeline or luxury?

The native trees of Greenland are unsuitable for larger construction projects or shipbuilding. Instead, the Norse colonists (AD 985–1450) relied on driftwood and imported timber. The provenance and extent of these imports, however, remain understudied. Here, the author uses microscopic anatomical analyses to determine the taxa and provenance of wood from five Norse Greenlandic sites. The results show that while the needs of most households were met by local woodlands and driftwood, elite farms had access to timber imports from Northern Europe and North America. By demonstrating the range of timber sources used by the Greenland Norse, the results illustrate connectivity across the medieval North Atlantic world.

The Utilisation of Native Woodland in Norse Greenland

ABSTRACT Wood was a key raw material for past societies and no less so in the Arctic region where woodland is sparse. When Norse settlers came to Greenland in the late tenth century AD, the pristine environment had not been affected by other humans for centuries. It has been assumed that the Norse had a negative effect on the environment, with drastic woodland clearance resulting in a more or less treeless landscape, contributing to the eventual demise of the Norse Greenlandic society. Recent palynological studies indicate that the environmental impact was in fact more complex. Wood taxonomic analyses on artefacts and samples from five Norse Greenlandic sites (1000–1400 AD) show that 36% of the combined assemblages (total of 8552 pieces) derive from native woodland. Mostly, it was used to make small-sized objects, but it was also an important source of nutrients, fuel, fodder and insulation. The proportion of native woodland was significantly higher on medium-sized farms than at the one high-status farm studied, indicating that socioeconomic factors impacted wood acquisition. Although local woodlands could not sustain all the timber needs of the Norse Greenlanders, it made up a substantial component of their wood procurement strategies.

Habitat element associations in the bird fauna of an Australian farmland landscape

Context The decline of birds in farmland is of global concern. Aims The aim of this paper was to provide a local-scale case study of the bird fauna of temperate inland eastern Australia’s sheep–wheat belt. Methods Relationships between species occurrence and various habitat elements in the landscape were examined in a 342 km2 area of agricultural countryside near Wagga Wagga in southern inland New South Wales, Australia. The pre-agricultural bird fauna of this area was also investigated by collating records from previous studies of nearby larger woodland remnants. Key results The study identified a bird fauna of 115 species compared to 160 species known from nearby woodland remnants. Significant relationships were found with the presence of farm dams, extent of local woodland cover and roadside woodland at the levels of individual species, guilds and total fauna. A small ephemeral wetland also contributed substantially to waterbird diversity. Conclusion Twenty commonly recorded species typical of the farmland matrix and 15 species considered at particular risk of local extinction were identified. At the guild level, frugivore/granivores, small insectivores and hollow-users were found to be associated with remaining woodland elements in the agricultural landscape. Implications Ecologically sustainable management of agricultural areas is essential to avoid further local extinctions. Hollow-using species are expected to be particularly affected by the anticipated widespread loss of trees in the landscape over the next century.

Ecosystem impacts by the Ancestral Puebloans of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, USA.

The Ancestral Puebloans occupied Chaco Canyon, in what is now the southwestern USA, for more than a millennium and harvested useful timber and fuel from the trees of distant forests as well as local woodlands, especially juniper and pinyon pine. These pinyon juniper woodland products were an essential part of the resource base from Late Archaic times (3000–100 BC) to the Bonito phase (AD 800–1140) during the great florescence of Chacoan culture. During this vast expanse of time, the availability of portions of the woodland declined. We posit, based on pollen and macrobotanical remains, that the Chaco Canyon woodlands were substantially impacted during Late Archaic to Basketmaker II times (100 BC–AD 500) when agriculture became a major means of food production and the manufacture of pottery was introduced into the canyon. By the time of the Bonito phase, the local woodlands, especially the juniper component, had been decimated by centuries of continuous extraction of a slow-growing resource. The destabilizing impact resulting from recurrent woodland harvesting likely contributed to the environmental unpredictability and difficulty in procuring essential resources suffered by the Ancestral Puebloans prior to their ultimate departure from Chaco Canyon.

Environmental changes in the late Allerød and early Younger Dryas in the Netherlands: a multiproxy high-resolution record from a site with two Pinus sylvestris populations

In the Netherlands, several proxies of climate change during the Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition (LGIT) (c. 14,700 to 11,700 b2k) have been investigated in detail over the last few decades. The present paper presents two tree-ring chronologies LETR-A (n = 16, timespan 106 rings) and LETR-B (n = 24, timespan 201 rings) from in situ subfossil pine remains (Pinus sylvestris) discovered at Leusden-Den Treek in the Netherlands that date from the Bølling-Allerød interstadial (GI-1). Using a multiproxy approach (both abiotic and biotic), it was possible to study local woodland development in detail as part of long-term environmental change. Moreover, the trees opened up possibilities for dendrochronological and dendroclimatological research. The tree-ring series show the occurrence of two successive phases of pine woodland development, which were 14C dated with high precision and calibrated using the recent IntCal20 14C calibration curve: 13,450–13,396 to 13,370–13,316 calBP (series LETR-A) and 12,952–12,937 to 12,754–12,739 calBP (series LETR-B). At the north-western boundary of its ecotone, Pinus was highly sensitive to climate change during the latter part of GI-1 and the transition to GS-1. The inability to set fruit and the disappearance of the pine woodland within decades before and after c. 12,745 calBP is interpreted as the vegetational response to abrupt climate deterioration at the start of the Younger Dryas (12,807 ± 12 cal BP).

Changes in Wood Utilization Due to Iron Age Jade Mining in the Western Hexi Corridor: Wood Charcoal Investigations

Charcoal remains from archeological sites are used not only to reconstruct the historical composition of local woodlands but also to examine the history of the human use of wood. Nevertheless, key questions such as how and why people may have selected particular woody taxa from locations long distances from their habitat have rarely been addressed. In the present study, we analyze charcoal remains from the ancient Jingbaoer (JBR) jade mine in the Mazong Mountains (Mazong Shan) of Northwest China to explore patterns in the collection and use of wood by Iron Age people. Factors affecting the choice of wood collected at the JBR site are discussed by combining the results of pollen records and charcoal analysis. Our results suggest that tamarisk (Tamarix L.), a shrub dominant in the local area, was the main source of wood for JBR miners and was used as firewood depending upon its local availability. The miners may also have used wood from species sourced further away, such as Pinus L. and Picea L., because of the local scarcity of these trees in such a dry environment. The agropastoralist subsistence system practiced by the JBR miners supports the hypothesis of the collection of wood from distant locales. This study highlights diverse patterns of wood collection in an area scarce in woody plants and provides new evidence for understanding how Iron Age people adapted to extremely arid environments.

Palynological investigation of a later Bronze Age copper mine at Derrycarhoon in south-west Ireland

This paper presents the results of a recent palynological analysis at a prehistoric mine in the Mizen Peninsula of West Cork. Archaeological survey and excavation confirm Derrycarhoon is the first copper mine in Ireland dated to the later Bronze Age, c. 1400–1000 BC. The production there represents the end of a mining tradition in the south-west region that began a millennium or so earlier at Ross Island, Co. Kerry. The palynological study at Derrycarhoon examines the contemporary environment of the early mine, to understand its effect on local vegetation during the later second millennium BC. This environmental impact was reduced by the small scale of ore extraction over several centuries, and by a mining technology that did not significantly impact local woodland at a location where contamination from surface ore-processing was both short-lived and localised. The results add to information on the variability of environmental impacts caused by mining and metal production in prehistoric Europe. Finally, this study contributes to a wider understanding of vegetation history and anthropogenic influences during the Holocene in the West Cork region.

Medieval oak chronology from Klaipėda, Lithuania

Klaipėda is a town in western Lithuania on the Baltic Sea coast. Oak timber was actively used to construct buildings in this town until the 17th century. Archaeological investigations began in Klaipėda’s old town in 1979, but it has not been possible to use oak timbers for dating due to the lack of regional chronologies. The goal of this study was to fill this gap by developing a well-replicated oak chronology from timber collected in Klaipėda between 1979 and 1987. The resulting oak chronology from Klaipėda spans 306 years from 1247 to 1552 and includes 62 oak timber cross-sections. The study suggests that the timber was felled in the same local woodland, and that tree-ring widths series from Klaipėda are temperature-sensitive. The negative pointer years mostly coincide with negative anomalies of reconstructed April‒September temperature from elsewhere in Europe. The constructed chronology was compared with local chronologies (Vilquro, Smarhoń, Gdańsk) and with oak chronologies made from imported oak timber of southeast Baltic origin (Baltic 1–3, Dutch). We assessed whether it is possible to determine the origins of the Baltic 1, Baltic 3 and Dutch oak chronologies compiled from imported timber. Based on available chronologies, it could be hypothesised that Baltic 1 and Dutch chronologies are originated from western Lithuania and Baltic 3 from eastern Lithuania.

Allometric models for estimating aboveground biomass in the tropical woodlands of Ghana, West Africa

BackgroundModelling aboveground biomass (AGB) in forest and woodland ecosystems is critical for accurate estimation of carbon stocks. However, scarcity of allometric models for predicting AGB remains an issue that has not been adequately addressed in Africa. In particular, locally developed models for estimating AGB in the tropical woodlands of Ghana have received little attention. In the absence of locally developed allometric models, Ghana will continue to use Tier 1 biomass data through the application of pantropic models. Without local allometric models it is not certain how Ghana would achieve Tier 2 and 3 levels under the United Nations programme for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. The objective of this study is to develop a mixed-species allometric model for use in estimating AGB for the tropical woodlands in Ghana. Destructive sampling was carried out on 745 trees (as part of charcoal production) for the development of allometric equations. Diameter at breast height (dbh, i.e. 1.3 m above ground level), total tree height (H) and wood density (ρ) were used as predictors for the models. Seven models were compared and the best model selected based on model efficiency, bias (%) and corrected Akaike Information Criterion. The best model was validated by comparing its results with those of the pantropic model developed by Chave et al. (Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014) using equivalence test and conventional paired t-test.ResultsThe results revealed that the best model for estimating AGB in the tropical woodlands is AGB = 0.0580ρ((dbh)2H)0.999. The equivalence test showed that this model and the pantropic model developed by Chave et al. (Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014) were equivalent within ±10% of their mean predictions (p-values < 0.0001 for one-tailed t-tests for both lower and upper bounds at 5% significant level), while the paired t-test revealed that the mean (181.44 ± 18.25 kg) of the model predictions of the best model of this study was significantly (n = 745, mean diff. = 16.50 ± 2.45 kg; S.E. = 1.25 kg; p < 0.001) greater than that (164.94 ± 15.82 kg) of the pantropic model of Chave et al. (Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014).ConclusionThe model developed in this study fills a critical gap in estimating AGB in tropical woodlands in Ghana and other West African countries with similar ecological conditions. Despite the equivalence with the pantropic model it remains superior to the model of Chave et al. (Glob Chang Biol 20:3177–3190, 2014) for the estimation of AGB in local tropical woodlands. It is a relevant tool for the attainment of Tier 2 and 3 levels for REDD+. The model is recommended for use in the tropical woodlands in Ghana and other West African countries in place of the use of pantropic models.

From Mesolithic hunters to Iron Age herders: a unique record of woodland use from eastern central Europe (Czech Republic)

In a continuous, perfectly stratified sedimentary sequence which was discovered under a large sandstone overhang in northern Bohemia, Czech Republic, we analysed multiple biological remains, archaeological features and artefacts. This multi-proxy record has allowed us to examine the interactions between woodland and humans in a permanently wooded environment throughout almost the entire Holocene. We paid most attention to massive finds of dung pellets from sheep, goats or pigs and bedding layers which show that the site was used as a pen and shelter for livestock which grazed in the woods. Our results imply that such practices have occurred since the Neolithic, but the most robust evidence of these is for the Iron Age and early Middle Ages. Detailed analyses of the dung indicate woodland grazing and foddering with branches, acorns, beechnuts and crop processing remains. In addition, the wide palaeoenvironmental range of this detailed investigation provides evidence of the impact of wood pasturing on ecological functions, taxon composition and diversity of the local woodland ecosystem in the Holocene.

Forests and foragers: exploitation of wood resources by Mesolithic and para-Neolithic societies in north-eastern Poland

Newly acquired palaeobotanical data, including pollen, charred and uncharred wood, provided an exhaustive overview of the temporal changes in woodlands, which changes are due to the cumulative effect of natural processes and the long-term impact of pre-agrarian societies. We used the unique advantage of the peat bog archaeological site at Szczepanki located on an island in the former Lake Staświn (Masurian Lake District) to get an overview of wood exploitation throughout the Stone Age. Special attention was paid to the period of the most intense settlement, the period of the para-Neolithic Zedmar culture. This culture is interesting due to its economy having not been fully recognized so far, especially with respect to the use of plant resources. The evidence from Szczepanki confirmed the use of 16 arboreal taxa, accessible in local woodlands, as a source of timber by foragers. The majority of both unworked wood and fragments bearing traces of processing has been discovered in layers corresponding to the Zedmar period. An important role in the economy was played by wood with medium or low mechanical properties that was however fissile and amenable to woodworking. In addition, other useful properties such as flexibility, lightness, water resistance, strength and ease of splitting were favoured in the selection. The temporal distribution of wood remains in cultural layers at Szczepanki was convergent with a pollen record documenting the course of postglacial migration and local growth of particular taxa, as well as with the archaeologically documented changes in the intensity and time frame of the settlement.

Anthracological analyses of charcoal production sites at a high spatial resolution: the role of topography in the historical distribution of tree taxa in the northern Vosges mountains, France

The rising demand for charcoal from industrialization during the eighteenth century led to the establishment of a large number of charcoal production sites (CPSs) within the woodland ecosystems of Europe. The CPSs still present today can be investigated to assess the past woodland composition in terms of taxa present and timber size, at a high spatial resolution. The present study was done in the northern Vosges region in France, an area of low mountains covered by woods with some important past industrial sites in several of its valleys. We aimed to investigate the possible role of topographical variables such as altitude and aspect in the distribution of CPSs and in the past distribution of tree taxa. Charcoal production sites were found, identified and sampled in four valley catchment areas, and a numerical model of elevation was used to compute the topography of the landscape. A total of 233 sites were recorded and anthracological (charcoal) samples from 121 of these were analysed. The radiocarbon dates of 20 CPSs range between the late 17th and the early twentieth century AD, which corresponds to the peak of industrial activity in this region. The spatial distribution of CPSs appears to increase in density close to streams, and 14 tree taxa were identified in the charcoal records, with Fagus and Quercus being dominant by far. Our results revealed the strong influence of the direction in which the slope faced on the taxon composition of the anthracological spectra. These results suggest that the local woodland stands which were used to supply the charcoal kilns depended on the local environmental conditions. Furthermore, the composition of the woodland has changed significantly over time, with more Pinus sylvestris at present.

The distribution and frequency of detection of woodland birds after selective logging of a small woodland remnant in an agricultural landscape in inland southern Australia

The majority of studies into the response of birds to logging in Australian forests has been done in forest-dominated landscapes or relatively large forest blocks, where the surrounding landscape can ameliorate impacts. This is the first study to examine the response of birds to logging of a small, relatively isolated woodland remnant in a landscape dominated by agriculture, with a focus on declining woodland birds. Approximately two thirds of a 120 ha cypress-eucalypt woodland remnant was selectively logged. Eighty bird species in total were recorded 2–3½ years after logging, including 18 recognised as declining woodland birds. Sixty-four species were recorded in the unlogged area and 72 in the logged area. Of the 31 species recorded sufficiently frequently for analysis, 19 showed no statistical difference in occurrence between logged and unlogged areas at the power of the study, nine were more prevalent in unlogged areas and three more prevalent in logged areas. Declining woodland birds comprised 22½% of overall species and 33% of those more prevalent in unlogged areas. Mapping of records enabled the response of a subset of species to be examined in greater detail. Four species illustrate the range of responses by declining woodland birds: Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis was confined to unlogged areas, White-browed Babbler Pomatostomus superciliosus favoured unlogged areas, Varied Sittella Daphoenositta chrysoptera favoured proximity to unlogged areas and Red-capped Robin Petroica goodenovii was widely distributed in both logged and unlogged areas. The likelihood of recovery of local woodland bird populations is discussed in the context of limited landscape connectivity and the recent colonisation of the remnant by the hyper-aggressive Noisy Miner Manorina melanocephala. White-browed Babbler and Eastern Yellow Robin are considered to be at high risk of local extinction in the remnant.

Late Holocene transformations of lower montane forest in the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains (Western Carpathians, Central Europe): a case study from Mount Mogielica

This article presents a reconstruction of Late Holocene vegetation changes within the lower montane forest zone in the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains (Western Carpathians, Central Europe). Pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs, loss on ignition, and microscopic charcoal analyses were applied to a profile collected from the deposits of the rich fen which developed in the landslide depression. The results reveal that during the period between ca. 4800 ± 70 and 4160 ± 60 cal. BP, Picea abies dominated in the local forests. Between ca. 4800 ± 70 and 4660 ± 60 cal. BP, Acer was an important component in local woodlands, which distinguishes the study site from others in the Western Carpathians. At ca. 4100 ± 60 cal. BP, forests dominated by Abies alba and Fagus sylvatica expanded. Nowadays, this type of vegetation is characteristic of the lower montane zone in the Polish Western Carpathians. This expansion was probably a consequence of environmental disturbances related to the cold and wet ‘4.2 ka BP’ event. The spread of these forests was preceded by a short episode of expansion of Tilia (Tilia cordata and/or Tilia platyphyllos) which was a very local event. The area of the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains provided suitable habitats for the occurrence of T. baccata, which has not been recorded in pollen data spanning the Middle and beginning of the Late Holocene from this mountain range. A significant increase in the percentages of Kretzschmaria deusta, a parasitic fungus, reveals that A. alba–F. sylvatica forests provided an optimal habitat for such species during the period from 4070 ± 60 to 47 cal. BP. Since ca. 2640 ± 110 cal. BP, pollen of pioneer trees, such as Pinus sylvestris and Betula, as well as human activity indicators (Cerealia type and Plantago lanceolata) have become more frequent. Nonetheless, it is highly probable that this section of deposits also includes the presence of one or more sedimentary gaps.

Enhancing Health Through Access to Nature: How Effective are Interventions in Woodlands in Deprived Urban Communities? A Quasi-experimental Study in Scotland, UK.

High prevalence of poor mental health is a major public health problem. Natural environments may contribute to mitigating stress and enhancing health. However, there is little evidence on whether community-level interventions intended to increase exposure to natural environments can improve mental health and related behaviours. In the first study of its kind, we evaluated whether the implementation of a programme designed to improve the quality of, and access to, local woodlands in deprived communities in Scotland, UK, was associated with lower perceived stress or other health-related outcomes, using a controlled, repeat cross-sectional design with a nested prospective cohort. Interventions included physical changes to the woodlands and community engagement activities within the woodlands, with data collected at baseline (2013) and post-intervention (2014 and 2015). The interventions were, unexpectedly, associated with increased perceived stress compared to control sites. However, we observed significantly greater increases in stress for those living >500 m from intervention sites. Visits to nearby nature (woods and other green space) increased overall, and moderate physical activity levels also increased. In the intervention communities, those who visited natural environments showed smaller increases in stress than those who did not; there was also some evidence of increased nature connectedness and social cohesion. The intervention costs were modest but there were no significant changes in quality of life on which to base cost-effectiveness. Findings suggest factors not captured in the study may have contributed to the perceived stress patterns found. Wider community engagement and longer post-intervention follow-up may be needed to achieve significant health benefits from woodland interventions such as those described here. The study points to the challenges in evidencing the effectiveness of green space and forestry interventions to enhance health in urban environments, but also to potential benefits from more integrated approaches across health and landscape planning and management practice.

Social organization of boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in response to decreasing annual snow depth

Global climate warming is causing reductions in the depth and duration of snow cover across much of the distributional range of threatened boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). Plasticity in group size and composition among gregarious ungulates likely reflects a response to a variety of proximate factors, including environmental conditions such as snow depth. Yet, longitudinal studies of social organization by ungulates in response to environmental conditions are limited. We used 11 years of aerial survey data to examine winter group size in a northern population of boreal woodland caribou in response to late-winter snow depth. We documented caribou social organization (size and types of groups) and annual variability in group size. We tested the hypothesis that group size increases with increasing snow depth. Most groups (61%; n = 456) were ≤ 5 animals; however, they only constituted 37% of the animals. Caribou were distributed among four types of groups, including solitary females, males only, females only, and mixed groups. Group sizes differed among group types. Mixed groups were both the most common and largest groups encountered in late winter. We found a positive relationship between snow depth and group size; however, there was no relationship between snow depth and the percentage of mixed groups. These caribou may form larger groups in winters with deep snow as a behavioral strategy to reduce energetic costs, predation risk, or both. Climate-induced decreases in late-winter snow depth will likely reduce group sizes in boreal woodland caribou. However, further work is required to understand if this change in social organization will affect the persistence of local boreal woodland caribou populations.

‘My wood isn’t one of those dark and scary ones’: children’s experience and knowledge of woodland in the English rural landscape

ABSTRACTRecent studies of children have argued that children are suffering from a deficiency in nature experience. Some argue that a lack of experience leads to poor affective relations which for wooded environments may be manifested as fear. This study investigates a geographical knowledge gap in understanding children’s relationships with woodland. This interactive qualitative study included 21 junior age children living in a rural setting in Derbyshire, England, UK. Most were found to visit local woodlands regularly, though unsupervised visits were usually limited to woods adjacent to housing. The children demonstrated good levels of practical knowledge though explicit knowledge, such as tree names, was generally poor. The majority of children had positive attitudes towards woodland, especially those with the greatest experience. Adventure, calm and freedom were identified as major themes. Fear was widespread but rarely dominated and was often associated with exhilaration linked to cultural imaginaries such as computer games and films.

Palaeoenvironmental evidence for woodland conservation in Northern Iceland from settlement to the twentieth century

ABSTRACTNarratives of Norse arrival in Iceland highlight the onset of land degradation and loss of woodland cover as major and long-term environmental consequences of settlement. However, deliberate and sustained land resource management in Iceland is increasingly being recognised, and in this paper we assess whether woodland areas were deliberately managed as fuel resources. Our study location is the high status farm site at Hofstaðir in northern Iceland. A palynological record was obtained from a small basin located just inside the farm boundary wall and the geoarchaeological record of fuel use obtained from waste midden deposits associated with the farm. Both environmental records are temporally constrained by tephrochronology and archaeological records. When viewed within the broader landscape setting, our findings suggest that there was near continuous use of birch wood from early settlement to the present day, that it was actively conserved throughout the occupation of the site and that there were clear distinctions in fuel resource utilisation for domestic and more industrial purposes. Our analyses open discussion on the role of local woodlands and their management in the Norse farm economy.

Neolithic and Bronze Age occupation at Meadowend Farm, Clackmannanshire

The excavations at Meadowend Farm, Clackmannanshire (NGR: NS 9280 9040) produced evidence for occupation at various times between the Early Neolithic and the Middle to Late Bronze Age. Significantly, it yielded the largest and best-dated assemblage of Middle Neolithic Impressed Ware yet encountered in Scotland, comprising at least 206 vessels. Episodes of Early to (pre-Impressed Ware) Middle Neolithic activity were represented by pits and post holes scattered across the excavated areas, some containing pottery of the Carinated Bowl tradition and some with charred plant remains; three blades of pitchstone and one of non-local flint were also found. The phase of activity associated with the Middle Neolithic Impressed Ware pottery (c 3350‒3000 cal BC) is represented mostly by clusters of pits, some containing hearth waste and/or charcoal, charred cereal grain and burnt hazelnut shell fragments. A stone axehead and a broken roughout for an axe- or adze-head were associated with this phase of occupation. There then appears to have been a hiatus of activity of around a millennium before occupation resumed. One Early Bronze Age structure and pits dating to around 2000 cal BC (plus undated pits containing possible Beaker pottery) were succeeded by four Early to Middle Bronze Age roundhouses dating to c 1750‒1300 cal BC and a large pit containing parts of at least 37 pots, and subsequently by two large double-ring roundhouses, an oval building, and ancillary structures and features dating to the Middle to Late Bronze Age, c 1300‒900 cal BC. There is also evidence suggesting low level activity during the Iron Age, plus two medieval corn-drying kilns. Environmental evidence indicates cereal growing from the earliest period, and local woodland management. This publication focuses on the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods and discusses the significance of this site for our understanding of these periods, and particularly for the Middle Neolithic, in Scotland.