Local Water Users Research Articles

Territorial Pluralism in China: Local Water Users’ Adaptation Strategies in the South–North Water Transfer Project

China’s South–North Water Transfer Project has been questioned as it has resulted in significantly negative issues. Drawing on the notion of hydrosocial territories, this article examines the contested hydraulic configuration and counter-imaginaries from local water users’ perspectives and their specific adaptation strategies in the South–North Water Transfer Project. This article argues that local water users in a Chinese context can only adopt adaptation strategies that are determined by their socio-economic backgrounds. This has led to significant social and environmental injustice. Addressing these issues is crucial for tackling inequities in the South–North Water Transfer Project and achieving the ambitious development goals of the project.

Retirement of US fossil fuel-fired power plants will increase water availability

Nearly two-thirds of fossil fuel-fired electricity generation capacity in the United States is expected to reach its typical end of life by 2035. While the closure of fossil fuel-fired power plants will help advance decarbonization goals, the cessation of water use for fossil fuel-fired power plant cooling - the largest water user in the US - will also impact the nation’s water resources. We assess when, where, and how much water will be made available upon the expected retirement of the nation’s nearly one thousand fossil fuel-fired power plants by combining a lifespan-based model of fossil fuel-fired generator retirements for the US fossil fuel-fired electricity generation fleet with a national-scale hydrologic model. We show that annual water withdrawals and consumption of fossil fuel-fired power generators will be significantly curtailed (85 % and 68 % reduction, respectively) by 2035 if these generators follow their typical retirement timeline. Most rivers with fossil fuel-fired power plants diverting and/or discharging water will have a net increase in annual streamflow after plant retirement (maximum decrease of 2 %, maximum increase of 57 % by 2050), with the most pronounced increases occurring in the summer months. The retirement of fossil fuel-fired power plants will lead to a large relative change (>5%) in streamflow at least one month per year by 2050 in 31 subbasins. The retirement of power generators was shown to produce noticeable streamflow impacts up to hundreds of kilometers downstream. By the retirement of the last US fossil fuel-fired power generator, 2.6 billion m3 of water that was once consumed by these power plants could be made available for other uses. In addition to the global benefits of reduced greenhouse gas emissions, the notable increases in streamflow and water availability in many US rivers due to the retirement of fossil fuel-fired power plants could benefit local water users and ecosystems.

Assisted network governance: An inclusive innovation to mitigate extreme water scarcity

We study a local innovation of natural resource governance in Chile in times of extreme water scarcity. Through the issuance of a scarcity decree, the government obliges local water user associations (WUAs) to reach viable water redistribution agreements in order to avoid being overruled by the state. In the Aconcagua River, the government together with the WUAs created the Executive Committee, where only the WUAs have a vote, but private and public stakeholders participate in the process of negotiating water use agreements. Grounded on thematic coding of the detailed minutes of over 80 committee meetings since its inception, we examine the workings of a new local model of Assisted Network Governance (ANG). Based on content and social network analysis of over 1,000 directed interactions among committee members, we find that ANG, as an element of broader hybrid governance, has not only produced viable agreements for immediate water redistribution, but has also facilitated longer-term system improvements by building mutual understanding, resolving conflicts, and mobilizing external resources to improve infrastructure. We conclude that ANG helps accomplish common objectives in the field of natural resources under conditions of extreme water scarcity.

Maladaptive learning in Peru’s integrated water resources management

In complex watershed management systems, learning from mistakes and adapting the rules accordingly is important. Our study investigates the interaction between two groups of stakeholders in a government-led Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) program in Peru’s Colca Valley: 1) local water users at the community level and 2) regional water agency officials. We examined how learning and adaptation happened or did not happen for both stakeholder groups. We collected data through 90 semi-structured interviews with local water users in three Colca Valley communities and water agency officials, as well as participant observation during meetings between the two groups. We found that both stakeholder groups learned and adapted to each other’s responses in a dynamic way. Nevertheless, the type of adaptation that occurred was maladaptive because it sustained the program flaws that reinforced the gap between the IWRM policies of regional water agencies and the water management priorities and incentives of local water users. We found that while there was an initial top-down and bottom-up sharing of information, water agency officials generally did not have the capacity to implement lessons learned and often dismissed negative feedback voiced by local water users. At the community level, water users had limited incentives to comply with IWRM requirements because the rules disadvantaged them economically. As a result, they learned to withhold information from water agency officials. We label this phenomenon maladaptive learning and argue that it leads to outcomes that are mutually non-beneficial for both stakeholder groups.

Laying the Groundwork for Raising Awareness on Water Related Issues with a Socio-Hydrogeological Approach: The Inle Lake Case Study (Southern Shan State, Myanmar)

Translating scientific findings into concrete action for (ground)water protection should be fundamental component of any hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical assessment, thus ensuring that scientific outcomes have a positive impact in the real world. To this purpose, understanding the water-related issues and the perceived criticalities by the water users is an asset, especially for earth scientists who are often the first contact with local communities during in situ measurements. By presenting the results of a socio-hydrogeological assessment in the Inle Lake area, this paper aims at demonstrating the feasibility and added value of this approach. In conjunction with groundwater sampling, public engagement activities were conducted by administering semi-structured interviews at a household level in each monitoring site. Hydrogeochemical data show that groundwater is characterized by an elevated hardness and by the presence of trace metals in solution due to the low redox potential. The work provides suggestions on how to translate the hydrogeochemical information associated to (i) the impact of climate change on water supply and availability, and (ii) the presence of geogenic groundwater contamination (Fe, Mn, As) into accessible information for local communities and water users’ associations. Sharing knowledge and promoting capacity building would also help to assess the reasons for the discrepancy between self-reported perception of groundwater quality (e.g., hardness) and analytical results.

Governing Water Resource Allocation: Water User Association Characteristics and the Role of the State

Water, as a common pool resource, is threatened by the possibility of overextraction generating a negative economic impact, conflicts among users, and greater income inequality. Scholars have discussed different governance approaches to deal with this threat, including centralized governance and self-governance, and lately, special attention has been paid to the interactions between formal institutions (the state) and local water user associations and how this promotes self-governance. The aim of this paper was to examine the adoption of Ostrom’s design principles present in the legal norms dictated in the Chilean Water Code by water user associations and to analyze the roles of their size, community homogeneity, and perceived water stress on adopting legal norms. The results showed that water communities generally follow the rules established in the Water Code, but the voting system, distribution of water, and fee payment are adjusted in small and homogenous water user associations. We can also conclude that a cornerstone in the system is implementing graduated sanctions, as water users see the tools provided by the Water Code as ineffective.

Multi-Criteria Hydro-Economic Decision Tool for Rejuvenating Community Irrigation Tanks in Rural India

Rising water scarcity in agriculture has been a major concern worldwide. As resource managers seek to address this issue, Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) has become a widely accepted sustainability paradigm. The purpose of this study is to evaluate restoration alternatives of irrigation tanks by applying multi-criteria and probabilistic benefit–cost analysis for a rural watershed in India. We incorporate the principles of local-IWRM, namely, hydrological balance, efficiency, equity, stakeholders’ involvement, and uncertainty. We use the mixed-method approach of data collection, including remotely sensed hydro-ecological data, walk-through field observations, focus groups, and household surveys. The study region produces a large percent of runoff water (i.e., about 67% of the total precipitation) which can be partially captured to sustain irrigation tanks. The majority of the tanks in the study area do possess moderate to high irrigation potential yet remain in poor conditions. A proposed lift irrigation scheme with a 75% or more increase in water availability could return from ₹ 1.23 to ₹ 1.73 on every Indian rupee (₹) invested, in addition to other socio-ecological benefits. The increase in water availability could lead to future crop area expansion, which comes with a high price tag. Therefore, using additional water on the existing crop area can be just as economically viable as water-induced crop expansion. A coordinated effort on the part of local agencies and water users is necessary for efficient and equitable use of incremental water that comes from any restoration efforts in the study area or elsewhere.

Extending Natural Limits to Address Water Scarcity? The Role of Non-Conventional Water Fluxes in Climate Change Adaptation Capacity: A Review

Water consumption continues to grow globally, and it is estimated that more than 160% of the total global water volume will be needed to satisfy the water requirements in ten years. In this context, non-conventional water resources are being considered to overcome water scarcity and reduce water conflicts between regions and sectors. A bibliometric analysis and literature review of 81 papers published between 2000 and 2020 focused on south-east Spain were conducted. The aim was to examine and re-think the benefits and concerns, and the inter-connections, of using reclaimed and desalinated water for agricultural and urban-tourist uses to address water scarcity and climate change impacts. Results highlight that: (1) water use, cost, quality, management, and perception are the main topics debated by both reclaimed and desalinated water users; (2) water governance schemes could be improved by including local stakeholders and water users in decision-making; and (3) rainwater is not recognized as a complementary option to increase water supply in semi-arid regions. Furthermore, the strengths–weaknesses–opportunities–threats (SWOT) analysis identifies complementary concerns such as acceptability and investment in reclaimed water, regulation (cost recovery principle), and environmental impacts of desalinated water.

Predicting Disasters Using Global Water Intelligence

Accurate knowledge of the water cycle is essential for predicting disasters such as floods and droughts. However, it’s not easy to obtain good information from traditional weather and water forecasts. The Group on Earth Observations Global Water Sustainability initiative (GEOGloWS) provides hydrologic forecasts through an accessible web service to assist local water users. Partnering with water scientists worldwide, Professor Jim Nelson of Brigham Young University worked with the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts to develop a global streamflow service. This service provides local communities with actionable water intelligence, enabling them to focus on solutions to water-related problems.

Participation in the Implementation of the Human Right to Water in Tunisia

This article analyses the implementation of the human right to water in Tunisia, focusing on the procedural indicator on ‘participation’. The article looks at the functioning of local Water User Associations as the lowest institutional level of water management and reviews theperformance criteria for participation within these associations as applied by the Tunisian government against the background of the legal norms for the human right to water and the indicator on participation within Sustainable Development Goal 6 on water and sanitation, i.e. SDG 6.b.

Agent-based modelling of water balance in a social-ecological system: A multidisciplinary approach for mountain catchments

The European Alps are known as the ‘water towers of Europe’. However, climatic and socioeconomic changes influence both water supply and demand, increasing the need to manage this limited and valuable resource properly to avoid user conflicts and water scarcity. Two major challenges emerge when assessing water scarcity in the Alps: Firstly, mountainous regions are very heterogeneous regarding water availability and demand over space and time, and therefore water scarcity assessments need to be done at low temporal and spatial scales. Secondly, the tight coupling of the natural and the social sphere necessitate an integrative approach considering dynamics and interactions of the social-ecological system. Hence, we applied the agent-based water supply and demand model Aqua.MORE, which is designed for catchment scale and sub-daily temporal resolution, to a case study site in the Italian Alps. In the model, the water supply, the local water managers and water users are represented by interacting model agents. We estimated the water supply by refining the annual runoff data provided by the InVEST water yield model for within-year variations. Local stakeholders contributed to the development of quantitative and spatially-explicit scenarios for land use and tourism evolution. To evaluate water supply and demand dynamics, we assessed six scenarios for the period of 2015 to 2050: three different socio-economic policy pathways, both alone and in combination with a climate change scenario. In all six scenarios, the water demand:supply (D:S) ratio continuously rises from 2015 to 2050.The highest D:S ratio values are prognosed at the beginning of the irrigation period in May. In all scenarios considering climatic changes, the D:S ratio exceeds 20% for several days, indicating potential water scarcity. The simulation results reinforce the importance of analysing water balances at a high temporal resolution and can support management processes and stakeholder dialogues for sustainable watershed management.

Assessing the learning capacity of water users – Adoption a social learning framework

Adaptive water governance systems are underpinned by enhanced social learning capacity of the society of actors to understand and adapt to changes properly. Thus, as a first step, it is crucial to assess the learning capacity of water actors in different levels, as human components of a socio-ecological system (SES), to know how to improve the water resources system adaptive capacity. Aiming at practicing assessment of learning capacity in a society of water actors, the present paper focuses on local water users, one the society of farmers using the groundwater resource in Rafsanjan Plain and the other one the society of farmers in Lakes Tashk-Bakhtegan Basin, both situated in the southern Iran. A methodological framework was developed and adopted to assess the learning capacity of water users corresponding to both the process of learning (represented by social justice, perception of interdependency, mutual trust, and interaction among all stakeholders) and the learning outcomes (including width, direction, depth and orientation of learning). The required data were collected using semi-structured interviews. The results showed how the responses of the local water users are affected by the mechanisms which are rooted in the social memory, technology, path dependency, and the degree of access to water. Although most of the researchers have addressed the social learning to have positive and constructive outcomes, the results of this research revealed the process of social learning resulted in neutral and destructive outcomes among water users in the study areas. Assessment of learning capacity in the water associated societies, using the methodological framework developed in this research, can help set off removing learning barriers and enhancing the socio-ecological system adaptive capacity.

Assessing governance of irrigation systems: A view from below

Attempts at irrigation development in Ghana, as in many other parts of sub-Saharan Africa, have been characterized by governance challenges at various levels. This paper aims to provide an empirical assessment of irrigation governance in 37 small-scale irrigation schemes in northern Ghana, derived from the perceptions of their users. We first distinguish six dimensions of governance based on the available literature to include participation, accountability, conflict management, transparency and cooperation, equity and fairness, and sustainable use. Next, we measure these irrigation governance dimensions using ratings provided by local water users. We then examine the relationship between these governance measures and some objective factors that possibly drive the assessments of users. The results indicate an overall good governance in the sampled schemes. Relatively, sustainable use had the lowest score and conflict management had the highest score. We further find that in schemes located in areas with relatively high annual precipitations, users report better irrigation governance. Within schemes, both users with plots at the head end and users with plots at the tail end are more critical about irrigation governance than other users. Remarkably, the number of users of a scheme has no significant effect on their overall assessment of its governance, although users in larger schemes are more positive on opportunities to participate in governance bodies and to keep these bodies accountable. To improve their sustainability, small-scale irrigation schemes (dams) may be better maintained for domestic and livestock watering. Promoting water-conserving irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and ground water techniques is essential.

Social network analysis of local water user associations’ actors: Evidence from Iran

Social network analysis of local water user associations’ actors: Evidence from Iran

Adaptive policy implementation: Process and impact of Indonesia’s national irrigation reform 1999–2018

Abstract After two decades of implementation, Indonesia’s program to reform its irrigation sector can be assessed yielding lessons on water policy reform. This reform coincided with state-wide decentralization, and shifted decision-making from a central ministry to a distributed arrangement in which local governments and Water User Associations assume part of irrigation authority and budget. The policy was formulated with different stakeholders in 1999–2004 based on field pilots and was implemented using an adaptive, sequential approach while developing institutional capacity of local governments and farmers. Relatively coherent longitudinal monitoring data sets are available on field-level practices, economic returns on projects (with and without, and before and after reform), and rice production. Institutional development was monitored by performance indicators. The overall reform effectiveness is assessed by analyzing the appropriateness of the new arrangement, and the processes of the policy design and of its implementation. After two decades well over three quarters of the country is applying the policy albeit with varying quality. At field level water supply and allocation turned more reliable, and conflicts better managed. Rice production increased year over year after 2005 correlating with policy roll-out. Irrigation Departments proved less adequate in partnering with farmers, however. Institutional capacity generated one quarter to two thirds of the economic benefit from investments that combined scheme rehabilitation and institutional capacity development. As institutional capacity develops slowly full roll-out may require up to three decades. The analysis shows that in the context of ‘wicked’ policy implementation, not only normative policy design matters, but equally importantly, the sequencing of the process of implementation allowing adaptation to physical, institutional and political realities; still, to be successful a process must build on a credible realistic ‘model’. This is especially true in developing and emerging economies with weaker institutional capacities and more fragmented governance structures.

Participatory Crossover Analysis to Support Discussions about Investments in Irrigation Water Sources

Regional long-term water management plans depend increasingly on investments by local water users such as farmers. However, local circumstances and individual situations vary and investment decisions are made under uncertainty. Water users may therefore perceive the costs and benefits very differently, leading to non-uniform investment decisions. This variation can be explored using crossover points. A crossover point represents conditions in which a decision maker assigns equal preference to competing alternatives. This paper presents, applies, and evaluates a framework extending the use of the concept of crossover points to a participatory process in a group setting. We applied the framework in a case study in the Coal River Valley of Tasmania, Australia. Here, farmers can choose from multiple water sources. In this case, the focus on crossover points encouraged participants to engage in candid discussions exploring the personal lines of reasoning underlying their preferences. Participants learned from others’ inputs, and group discussions elicited information and insights considered valuable for both the participants and for outsiders on the factors that influence preferences. We conclude that the approach has a high potential to facilitate learning in groups and to support planning.

Hydrogeophysical methods and hydrogeological models: basis for groundwater sustainable management in Valle Alto (Bolivia)

In Bolivia climate change and anthropogenic activities such as extensive agriculture, industries and urbanization have increased the groundwater demand and extraction, which is leading to severe stress on groundwater resources in several regions of Bolivia. This research aims to present an overview of different geophysical surveys performed in Valle Alto (central Bolivia), in particular in the Punata and Toco alluvial fans. The application of geophysics can have an implication in broadening the knowledge about local aquifers, which later might assist in proposing sustainable groundwater exploitation and protection plans. The geophysical results revealed two similar aquifer systems contained in unconsolidated sediments. A refinement of the hydrogeological conceptual models in terms of layering, lateral variation and thicknesses was performed in both areas. Moreover, geophysical surveys revealed geological features such as faults and saline regions which have not been reported previously in other studies. Such information is aimed to be the basis for further debates on groundwater protection, management, planning, and decision-making between local water user organizations and municipalities.

Sustainability indices to evaluate groundwater adaptive management: a case study in California (USA) for the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act

The Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA) enacted in California (USA) outlines legal standards to regulate groundwater management. A key requirement of SGMA is local-scale adaptive management, which requires evaluation of measurable objectives defined by local water users. The objective of this study is to illustrate a groundwater sustainability framework using performance indicators and groundwater-level elevation records that may be used to quantify objective management strategy outcomes. Application of the framework to groundwater basins in the Central Valley identified spatial variability in groundwater-basin sustainability indices, attributed to complex interactions between climate and groundwater use. Further, a temporal assessment of performance indicators documented the utility of the framework to evaluate the performance of adaptive management implementations. The proposed framework can be used to inform management decisions and identify future intervention management strategies.

Decentralizing Payments for Hydrological Services Programs in Veracruz, Mexico: Challenges and Implications for Long-term Sustainability

In this policy review, we analyze two payments for hydrological services matching programs operating in the Antigua water basin in the state of Veracruz, Mexico. Mexico’s Matching Program was created to transition from the national payments for hydrological services program to programs that would be financed by local governments, local water users and the private sector. Based on the analysis of organizational documents and key informant interviews with institutional actors, we describe the distinctive origins and organizational structures of these two programs, and how these differences have led to unique challenges for each program. We conclude that payments for ecosystem services programs that incorporate community-level organization and extensive technical assistance, along with expanded direct payments from ecosystem service users, have the greatest potential for achieving long-term sustainability.

Participatory Approach on Water Scarcity Solutions in Pranburi Basin, Thailand

Water scarcity is the main problems of water management and various socio-economic development activities of Thailand. Expert opinion and scientific knowledge are always convenient to be used to solve problems. To some extent, this approach may not be applicable since it is not accepted by local communities. To reduce this conflict, participatory approach may provide local cooperation and assist developing better water management strategies. Pranburi Basin is an important headwater that supports both agricultural land and municipality which includes Hua-Hin, a famous tourist place. The aims of this study were to assess water scarcity and to apply stakeholder participation into decision making processes for water management. Water stress index and criticality ratio were used to assess water scarcity. A Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework was used to describe water scarcity and contributing factors. Based on DPSIR analysis, the stakeholders proposed and then prioritized for the most appropriate responses by ordinary weighing technique. The results indicated that the four most preferable measures for this basin include controlling agricultural area, controlling crop types, reforestation and establishing local water user association.