Local Water Suppliers Research Articles

Drivers and barriers towards sustainable water management in Erbil Kurdistan Region of Iraq

This study identifies and examines drivers and barriers toward effective integrated and sustainable management and governance practices based on ecosystem services’ perspective of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq’s water management area. A combination of a systematic literature review and 28 individuals from Ankawa, Kasnazan, Haran City, Eskan, Bakhtiari, Tairawa, Mastufi, Khabat and Saiudawa were randomly interviewed. The decisions to use residents of these areas are based on their location as well as mixed challenges and conditions regarding water supply and use based on their social and economic statuses. The responses were analysed using NVivo 12 and the results of the study indicated that there have been substantial increases in environmental and ecosystem services awareness has been a key driver of heightening sustainability initiatives in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Additionally, the study reveals that lacking coherence between actors and sectors concerning natural resource governance is a major obstacle to undermining sustainable water management initiatives. It is inferred through the established findings that sound leadership, localized, decentralised management structures, and sustainable developments are pivotal for enhancing the water management efforts in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Moreover, local water suppliers, residents, farmers and decision-makers are encouraged to adopt additional and sound water monitoring practices to improve ecosystem services and valuable contributions toward improving human beings’ well-being.

Denitrification in the vadose zone: Modelling with percolating water prognosis and denitrification potential

Transport and transformation processes of nitrogen in the soil are an essential part of understanding the relationship between agricultural input and nitrate (NO3−) concentrations in groundwater. The presented study describes these transformation processes around NO3− degradation at a water catchment in the Lower Rhine Embayment, Germany. Despite intensive agriculture, extracted groundwater at a depth of 21 to 22 m shows unexpectedly very low NO3− levels, below 3 mg/L NO3− for all wells. The local water supplier therefore carried out investigations in this area and generated soil data from 22 representative areas (142 soil samples from 82 drilling meters from the surface to a max. depth of 5.5 m) and groundwater analyses from 17 groundwater monitoring wells (from 3 to 5 m below ground surface). Soil types are predominantly luvisol and gleysol. The substrate in the topsoil is mainly clayey silt; underneath there are mostly medium-grained sands with partial silt intercalations which appear as a separate layer. Based on this dataset, the percolating water residence times and the NO3− leaching potential were calculated in this study. Together with the nitrogen surplus and with the help of reactive transport modelling, the denitrification potential in the vadose zone was simulated. The comparison of simulation results with laboratory-measured data shows a high correlation. Substantial NO3− reduction in the vadose zone was observed: dependent on soil type, reduction capacity and water residence time, up to 25% of the NO3− was reduced here. The applied modelling is considered an improvement in NO3− degradation potential assessment because it considers many relevant variables such as precipitation, soil parameters (grain size, field capacity, available water capacity, coarse fragments) and nitrogen input. Therefore, a transfer to other sites with comparable hydro(geo)logical conditions is possible, also due to relatively easily determinable input data. This assessment of nitrogen degradation in the vadose zone will be a useful tool for NO3− levels forecast in groundwater

Drivers and barriers towards sustainable water and land management in the Olifants-Doorn Water Management Area, South Africa

Over the last 17 years South Africa's water and land resources management has changed dramatically. This rapid evolution has been accompanied by a growing number of laws and policies to co-balance water allocation for human basic needs and ecosystem integrity. Most often, new ideas and innovative concepts constitute new challenges towards their implementation. This paper examines drivers and barriers towards more sustainable and integrated governance and management practices from the perspective of ecosystem services in the Olifants-Doorn Water Management Area (WMA). Results obtained from a literature search and qualitative interviews indicate that the environmental awareness of stakeholders about their natural resources and related ecosystem services increased over the last years. Furthermore, we observed that the establishment of new polices became a key driver towards increased sustainability within the Olifants-Doorn WMA. Nonetheless, ensuring coherence between sectors and actors when considering natural resource governance remains a major challenge. For future sustainable developments, decentralized and localized management structures as well as the establishment of strong leadership should be emphasized in the Olifants-Doorn WMA. Further, sufficient water and land monitoring systems are necessary for decision makers, farmers and local water suppliers in order to maintain ecosystem services and their values for human well-being.

Cost Structure and Economies of Scale in German Water Supply

Potable water supply in Germany is highly fragmented. A consolidation of the industry could, therefore, lead to lower cost of water supply and price savings for the customers. In this paper we estimate a total cost function for potable water supply based on a unique sample of German water utilities observed between 2004 and 2010. Newly available data allows for a detailed cost modeling approach. Capital stocks are estimated using the Perpetual Inventory Method, while capital costs are estimated using a weighted cost of capital approach. Local water suppliers are found to have strong cost advantages compared to regional suppliers. While the results indicate strong density effects, economies of scale are only found for the smallest water utilities. Thus, the results argue against a consolidation of the industry.

Association between domestic water hardness, chlorine, and atopic dermatitis risk in early life: A population-based cross-sectional study

Domestic water hardness and chlorine have been suggested as important risk factors for atopic dermatitis (AD). We sought to examine the link between domestic water calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and chlorine concentrations, skin barrier dysfunction (increased transepidermal water loss), and AD in infancy. We recruited 1303 three-month-old infants from the general population and gathered data on domestic water CaCO3 (in milligrams per liter) and chlorine (Cl2; in milligrams per liter) concentrations from local water suppliers. At enrollment, infants were examined for AD and screened for filaggrin (FLG) skin barrier gene mutation status. Transepidermal water loss was measured on unaffected forearm skin. CaCO3 and chlorine levels were strongly correlated. Ahybrid variable of greater than and less than median levels of CaCO3 and total chlorine was constructed: a baseline group of low CaCO3/low total chlorine (CaL/ClL), high CaCO3/low total chlorine (CaH/ClL), low CaCO3/high total chlorine (CaL/ClH) and high CaCO3/high total chlorine (CaH/ClH). Visible AD was more common in all 3 groups versus the baseline group: adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of 1.87 (95% CI, 1.25-2.80; P=.002) for the CaH/ClL group, AOR of 1.46 (95% CI, 0.97-2.21; P=.07) for the CaL/ClH, and AOR of 1.61 (95% CI, 1.09-2.38; P=.02) for the CaH/ClH group. The effect estimates were greater in children carrying FLG mutations, but formal interaction testing between water quality groups and filaggrin status was not statistically significant. High domestic water CaCO3 levels are associated with an increased risk of AD in infancy. The influence of increased total chlorine levels remains uncertain. An intervention trial is required to see whether installation of a domestic device to decrease CaCO3 levels around the time of birth can reduce this risk.

Weekly variations of discharge and groundwater quality caused by intermittent water supply in an urbanized karst catchment

Summary Leaky sewerage and water distribution networks are an enormous problem throughout the world, specifically in developing countries and regions with water scarcity. Especially in many arid and semi-arid regions, intermittent water supply (IWS) is common practice to cope with water shortage. This study investigates the combined influence of urban activities, IWS and water losses on groundwater quality and discusses the implications for water management. In the city of As-Salt (Jordan), local water supply is mostly based on groundwater from the karst aquifer that underlies the city. Water is delivered to different supply zones for 24, 48 or 60 h each week with drinking water losses of around 50–60%. Fecal contamination in groundwater, mostly originating from the likewise leaky sewer system is a severe challenge for the local water supplier. In order to improve understanding of the local water cycle and contamination dynamics in the aquifer beneath the city, a down gradient spring and an observation well were chosen to identify contaminant occurrence and loads. Nitrate, Escherichia coli , spring discharge and the well water level were monitored for 2 years. Autocorrelation analyses of time series recorded during the dry season revealed weekly periodicity of spring discharge (45 ± 3.9 L s −1 ) and NO 3 -N concentrations (11.4 ± 0.8 mg L −1 ) along with weekly varying E. coli levels partly exceeding 2.420 MPN 100 mL −1 . Cross-correlation analyses demonstrate a significant and inverse correlation of nitrate and discharge variations which points to a periodic dilution of contaminated groundwater by freshwater from the leaking IWS being the principal cause of the observed fluctuations. Contaminant inputs from leaking sewers appear to be rather constant. The results reveal the distinct impact of leaking clean IWS on the local groundwater and subsequently on the local water supply and therefore demonstrate the need for action regarding the mitigation of groundwater contamination and reduction of network losses from sewer leakage. Furthermore, these investigations contribute to an improved understanding of urban water cycle systems in the Middle-East which may help water managers in the region to conserve precious resources.

Curriculum Option for Gender Equality: A Channel for Social and Economic Securities in Nigeria

Gender inequality has been one of the major forces that threatens the security and economic development of many societies world ever. Nigeria is not an exception in these social vices, where women are not avail with the opportunity to render their services for the general growth of the nation. This paper attempts to advance a curriculum option, that will provide women with the potentials to give their contributions in social and economic developments, that will translate into a positive security atmosphere in Nigeria. I. Introduction The critical role women play in partnership with men in creating and implementing a sustainable pattern of development, has in recent years become a topical issue world over. This is in recognition of the importance, the women play in the process of creating a well balanced society, with a view to make the world a better place to live. Nigeria as a nation cannot be an exception in this positive movement. The neglect women experience from development partners, in terms of their needs, has been the reason for the deterioration of the environment, in the developing nation like Nigeria. This trend has been one of the causes of failure in our developmental process. This has amplified women's voices and strengthened their call for a sustainable future for their children and generation to come. This movement by women to redefine development, has motivated planners to take a wholistic approach that will incorporate women in sustainable development. However, this approach has not considered curriculum option in this direction. The 1991 global assembly of women and the environment (British council, (1998) sponsored by the United Nation's Environment Programme (UNEP) which invited representatives of both government and non- governmental organizations to Miami, Florida to confer with 215 women who have initiated successful environmental projects in communities all over the world. These women, many of them faced daily with the responsibility for feeding and protecting the health of their families, took action within the spheres of influence traditionally open to them. They designed smokeless stoves, solar cookers, solar green houses, others are, how to clean up local water suppliers, altered farming methods and successful cultivated degraded lands. Women are also giving immeasurable contributions in development through their work with non- governmental organization (NGO's) when the non-government organization sponsored the world women's congress for a healthy planet, also in Miami, Florida over 1,500 women and men from more than 75 countries engaged in a spirited exchange of views on a variety of environmental related issues. The communique offered three guiding principles. 1. Global equity giving priority to meeting the basic human needs of people 2. Resource ethics, calling for sustainable use of natural resources and responsibility towards future generations. 3. Empowerment of women at all levels to the achievement of principles of equity social justice. The world is in desperate need of the good sense, determination and compassion exhibited by women in these international conferences. It is becoming increasingly clear that the talent and capabilities of women have been seriously undermined. Hence, if women are fully educated, through our curriculum provisions, they would have participated in decision-making process and policy making at all levels of the society.

Ground-penetrating radar insight into a coastal aquifer: the freshwater lens of Borkum Island

Abstract. Freshwater lenses, as important resource for drinking water, are sensitive to climate changes and sea level rise. To simulate this impact on the groundwater systems, hydraulic subsurface models have to be designed. Geophysical techniques can provide information for generating realistic models. The aim of our work is to show how ground-penetrating radar (GPR) investigations can contribute to such hydrological simulations. In the pilot area, Borkum island, GPR was used to map the shape of the groundwater table (GWT) and to characterise the aquifer. In total, 20 km of constant offset (CO) profiles were measured with centre frequencies of 80 and 200 MHz. Wave velocities were determined by common midpoint (CMP) measurements and vertical radar profiling (VRP) in a monitoring well. The 80 MHz CO data show a clear reflection at the groundwater table, whereas the reflection is weaker for the 200 MHz data. After correcting the GPR water tables for the capillary rise, they are in good accordance with the pressure heads of the observation wells in the area. In the centre of the island, the groundwater table is found up to 3.5 m above sea level, however it is lower towards the coastline and marshland. Some local depressions are observed in the region of dune valleys and around pumping stations of the local water supplier. GPR also reveals details within the sediments and highly-permeable aeolian sands can be distinguished from less-permeable marine sediments. Further, a silt loam layer below the water table could be mapped on a large area. The reflection characteristics indicates scattered erosion channels in this layer that cause it to be an aquitard with some leakage. GPR provides a high resolution map of the groundwater table and insight into the stratigraphy of the sediments and their hydraulic properties. This is valuable complementary information to the observation of sparsely distributed monitoring wells as input to hydraulic simulation.

ASSESSMENT OF THE MULTIMEDIA MITIGATION OF RADON IN NEW YORK

Although not yet implemented, the 1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act instructed the states (or local water suppliers) to address radon concentrations in community water systems (CWS). As an alternative to reducing waterborne radon concentrations in the CWS to the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 11 Bq L(-1), states (or individual CWS) would be permitted to develop a multimedia mitigation (MMM) program, which allowed a greater concentration (148 Bq L(-1)) of waterborne radon in the CWS, if it could be shown that an equivalent health risk reduction could be achieved by reducing indoor radon concentrations. For a MMM program to be acceptable, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency required the health-risk reduction attained through mitigations and radon-resistant new construction (RRNC) to offset the increased health risk due to radon in community water systems above the MCL of 11 Bq L(-1). A quantitative assessment indicates that the reduction in health risk currently achieved in New York State through radon mitigations and RRNC exceeded the increase in risk associated with an alternative MCL of 148 Bq L(-1). The implementation of a MMM program in New York would result in an overall reduction in the health risk associated with exposure to radon.

Prospects, problems and pitfalls of urban water reuse: a case study

This paper presents a successful water reclamation and reuse project in the San Francisco Bay area. The project, which includes a water reclamation facility and a separate distribution system, is operated by a wastewater utility and reclaims approximately 4% of its dry-weather flow. Project history, its design and implementation are further discussed. Planning, and especially demand analysis, was critical for project development. Earlier attempts of water reuse were not successful because reclaimed water quality did not match the requirements of potential large industrial customers. Current customers are a mix of public, commercial and residential users who apply the reclaimed water solely for landscape irrigation. In addition, a large fraction of the reclaimed water is used internally in the main wastewater treatment plant. Early connection of largest customers, innovative collaboration with a neighboring reclamation project and cooperation of the local water supplier were very important for project success. Distribution of internal process water consumes most energy. The second major energy use is for the treatment of reclaimed water while distribution of reclaimed water to external customers requires least energy.

Water Composition Changes in Air-Conditioning Equipment

water demand brought about by the rapid growth of air conditioning. This demand has caused the widespread issuance of regulations requiring the use of water conservation equipment (i) whose use, in turn, gives rise to many water-caused operating problems. With the increased use of cooling towers and evaporative condensers in small commercial air-conditioning installations, water-caused troubles are now plaguing businessmen who have had no previous experience with such problems, and they turn naturally to the local water supplier for help. Such appeals make it important that water supply chemists and operators become aware of the changes that can occur in circulating cooling waters and of the operating difficulties that can be caused by these changes. Air-Conditioning Water Applications