Local Law Enforcement Research Articles

The Anti-illicit Activity Regime of the Multilateral Development Banks: Criminal Acts or Prohibited Practices?

The spread of illicit activity across the global economy presents significant challenges to international development. Despite the well-recognised global incidence of corruption, fraud, and money laundering in development-focused investment projects, the responses of the multilateral development banks (MDBs) to these threats remain understudied. Our article offers the first comprehensive study into the comparative historical emergence and evolution of MDB responses to illicit activity. By identifying and analysing critical junctures in this history, we argue that the MDBs have tended to approach illicit activity as prohibited practices rather than criminal acts. We contend that this is an intentional choice made by the MDBs that absolves these organisations from any real responsibility in minimising illicit activity, finding their concern to be ensuring contractual compliance in their lending operations rather than curtailing criminal behaviour and their preference to be resolving contractual deviations in-house as opposed to coordinating with local jurisdictions and law enforcement agencies.

COMMUNITY POLICING AND CRIME PREVENTION IN NIGERIA

Community policing has emerged as a promising strategy for crime prevention and enhancing public safety around the world and in Nigeria. This is due to the difficult task of conventional policing, especially where the community is not actively involved in crime prevention. It has been realized that safety in any given community requires an investment not only of money, but also time and talent, and that sometimes the best solutions are found in understanding the underlying causes of crime and disorder. Nigeria is one of the countries in the world that has embraced the idea of community policing with great enthusiasm for about two decades ago. Consequently, Nigeria, has introduced several policy measures with the main aim of encouraging the community to take up some responsibility for their safety and security of their environment. Drawing on empirical research and case studies, this paper examines the key principles, approaches and challenges of implementing community policing initiatives, to highlight the significance and impact of collaboration between local communities and law enforcement agencies on crime prevention, trust-building and social cohesion in Nigerian communities. The paper also emphasizes the importance of capacity building, sustainable funding, and institutional support in strengthening the effectiveness of community policing in Nigeria.

The Value of Less-Lethal Weapons

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; font-family: 'times new roman', times, serif;">Less-Lethal Weapons, including electric Tasers, velocity-reduction bullet-capture projectiles, rubber bullets, beanbag rounds, and other less-lethal projectiles used in police departments, federal and local law enforcement agencies, and military policing operations, as well as for private use, are topics of significant debate in recent years. These weapons can reduce collateral damage, reputational risk, and legal exposure while preventing wrongful and unnecessary deaths caused by conventional bullet wounds. Yet, opponents have highlighted concerns regarding the safety and effectiveness of these weapons, as well as their potential to cause injury or even death. While the primary duty of law enforcement officials is to preserve order and execute the law while protecting individual rights, they ultimately achieve these goals by exercising their coercive authority. Society expects police officers to rely on their professional training and judgment when using physical force to defend citizens and themselves or to apprehend criminal suspects. Because police officers must occasionally participate in physical acts of coercion, it is unavoidable that some of these interactions may result in bodily injuries to individuals, including the officers themselves. These injuries have real costs, such as medical treatment, lost wages, municipal liability, court claims and settlements, riots, and legal or even criminal exposure, as well as less-tangible collateral costs, such as the erosion of police legitimacy and public trust, which are more difficult to quantify but arguably more influential in shaping long-term public perceptions than personal injuries alone. Less lethal technology eliminates some of the concerns raised by lethal weaponry. This study reviews the advantages and disadvantages of these less-lethal weapon technologies versus traditional firearms for use by the police force, federal agencies, and military police while also performing advanced analytics to model the valuation and return on investment for a law enforcement organization implementing such technologies.</span></p>

Detainer Requests Issued by ICE and Fair/Poor Self-Rated Health among Latines in the U.S., 2017–2020

AbstractU.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) issues detainer requests to local law enforcement agencies to hold detainees suspected of being undocumented immigrants until they can be transferred into ICE custody. We examined the association between area-level detainer requests and self-rated health among Latine adults. We linked health data from Latine adults included in the 2017–2020 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (n = 69,386) to detainer requests per 1,000 non-citizens in core-based statistical areas, (n = 152 across 49 states). We fit logistic regression models of self-rated fair/poor health on detainer requests, adjusted for individual- and area-level confounders. In adjusted analyses, we found that Latine adults living in areas with the highest quartile of requests had 24% higher odds of fair/poor health (OR 1.24, 95% CI = 1.05,1.47) relative to those in the lowest quartile. Local law enforcement agencies should limit cooperation with federal immigrant agencies to protect the health of Latine communities.

Rapid assessment of human–elephant conflict: a crime science approach

An interdisciplinary approach has the potential not only to help solve conservation-centric problems but also to enrich and improve evidence-based scientific research. Crime science, an offshoot of criminology, provides a comprehensive, solution-oriented approach that transcends disciplinary boundaries and bridges science and practice for developing effective conservation interventions to real-life problems such as Human Elephant Conflict (HEC). This paper focuses on HEC as a conservation concern, but the resultant behaviors toward elephants, people, and their property are criminology’s concern. Using the Action Research paradigm, a rapid assessment of human–elephant conflict (HEC) in India was undertaken to identify contextual solutions. This study utilized problem-oriented field research methods that enabled the gathering of data on elephant habitat-landscape, villagers’ lifestyle (habitat) in the fringe areas, their current approaches in dealing with the conflict, the challenges forest officials face to mitigate HEC, and the assistance provided by district administrators to protect villagers and their corps and HEC-related deaths. The qualitative inquiry, including observation of village-forest fringe areas, focus group discussions with villagers, and interviews with forest officers and rangers, and district administrators/collectors who are handlers, guardians, and managers of the conflict space, provided rich data in identifying situational practical measures and underscored the role of crime science in providing a conceptual framework to gather evidence in addressing HEC in forest areas. The findings of the research suggest that human–animal convergence space is the source (or location) of conflict and criminology-driven situational crime prevention measures, including increasing effort, risks, reducing rewards and provocations, and removing excuses might mitigate the conflict, requiring coordinated efforts by villagers, forest and district administrators, and local law enforcers.

Retribution for tribal sovereignty: Settler colonial policing and civil justice impacts

Unique among marginalized groups, American Indians are both citizens of the United States and citizens of sovereign tribal nations, as recognized (but not granted) by federal Indian law. However, even as tribal nations exert increasing economic and political power, criminal legal outcomes for tribal members—who interface with an array of tribal, local, state, and federal law enforcement and justice systems—remain detrimental or are worsened. These outcomes also include increased contact with state courts and the delegitimization of tribal courts, which uniquely implicate the civil justice context. We use the settler colonial framework to investigate how tools of state criminal law, such as heavy policing and disparate punishment, may impact the civil justice needs of Indigenous people, and more broadly, the very sovereignty these policies aim to protect. Drawing on interviews and observations in tribal and county-level courts, we examine the experiences of American Indians and other stakeholders in Indian country. We identify how enforcement practices, surveillance of space, and the complexities of layered policing within a “jurisdictional maze” contribute to the deterioration of tribal sovereignty. We contextualize our findings by considering the historical, cultural, and socio-economic factors that influence the experiences of American Indians in the criminal justice system, and by examining the civil justice implications.

Moving Beyond Referrals: Addressing Multilevel Barriers to Substance Use Treatment Engagement Through Police-Led Recovery Management Check-Ups.

The opioid epidemic in the United States (US) has prompted innovative responses from law enforcement agencies including specialized units to refer overdose survivors to substance use treatment following an overdose. However, traditional law enforcement outreach does not address the multilevel barriers to treatment engagement that lead to repeat overdose-related calls for service. The current evaluation explored the process components and outcomes of a Comprehensive Opioid Abuse Program (COAP) initiative within a local law enforcement agency in the Southeast US. COAP funding supported a police-led recovery management team (RMT) to connect overdose survivors to substance use treatment. The RMT also utilized recovery management check-ups (RMCs) to provide sustained support to enhance substance use treatment engagement beyond the initial treatment referral. A mixed-methods approach was employed to examine participant demographic, substance use, mental health, treatment, and criminal justice characteristics (N = 65) and explore perceptions of programmatic strengths and potential areas for improvement (N = 15). The quantitative and qualitative analyses were informed by the Recovery Capital Model. Quantitative analysis revealed that the RMT connected many participants with various support services, notably including housing assistance and health insurance. Qualitative findings highlight program effectiveness in improving social, community, and personal recovery capital. These findings contribute to expanding research on police-led post-overdose initiatives and suggest that police-led RMCs can address multilevel barriers to treatment engagement and minimize law enforcement stigma.

Understanding the adoption of military equipment by local law enforcement agencies in the United States

AbstractObjectiveThis article examines the diffusion of paramilitary police units across the United States to consider the computational turn in social science.MethodsThe process of police diffusion is modeled by comparing traditional predictive models with agent‐based modeling (ABM) under constant and flexible binding conditions. The data are drawn from the Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies 2000, 2004 and the United States Cities Database.ResultsABM was not superior to traditional predictive models when it came to predicting policy diffusion and that flexible binding provides superior predictive capabilities over constant binding.ConclusionsPublic policy scholars should exercise caution in adopting computational methods as they may not offer advantages over traditional predicative analysis. Policy diffusion of police militarization is not driven by geographical proximity but may reflect hierarchical influences in the form of federal policy or the influence of far‐flung organizations perceived to be similar. This may cause inappropriate policies and practices to be adopted.

Community Policing: The Successful Implementation of Organizational Change

The goal of community policing is to improve interaction and collaboration between local law enforcement agencies and the people and neighborhoods they serve. Its primary objectives are to reduce and prevent crime and increase residents' sense of security. Community policing starts from the top of the management and flows down to the very lowest level of the police department. Thus, police managers play an important role in the change process. The goal of this study is to analyze the successful implementation of organizational change in police agencies. This article first lays out the definition of community policing, its key components, advantages, and its differences from traditional policing. Then it discusses the process of change, the sources, and strategies of resistance to change. In the conclusion section, this study makes recommendations for a successful implementation of the organizational change process.

Urgency of Establishing Qanun on the Functional Duties of the High Prosecutor's Office in Aceh Province

The success and sustainability of the implementation of Islamic Shari'a in Aceh is not only the burden of local law enforcement agencies such as Wilayatul Hisbah, the Syar'iyah Court and the Islamic Shari'a Office, law enforcement agencies on a national scale are also involved such as the Indonesian National Police through the Aceh Regional Police and the Attorney General's Office in Aceh Province in charge of transferring Jinayat (Islamic criminal law) cases to the Syar'iyah Court. However, this task of the prosecutor's office is considered by the researcher to need improvement because the role of the prosecutor's office is responsible for the delegation of cases to 2 (two) different courts. Of course, this improvement is needed through Qanun which has legitimacy as a regional regulation in the Indonesian legal system. Based on this description, this research is a typology of normative (legal) research. The results and discussion in this study conclude: First, the area of Islamic shari'a law enforcement has a synchronization between Law Number 1 of 2021 concerning the Prosecutor's Office of the Republic of Indonesia with the Aceh Qanun in the enforcement of Islamic shari'a in Aceh. The presence of Islamic law enforcement agencies in Aceh does not mean that the task of enforcing Islamic law is only government agencies. Second, the Urgency of the establishment of Qanun Aceh Prosecutor's Functional Duty is a social condition that requires improvement in the enforcement of Islamic shari'a in Aceh

Speed Management Blueprint: Conception of an IoT-Based Electric Vehicle Speed Limiter Monitoring System for Kigali City Vehicles

The Electric Vehicle Speed Limiter Monitoring System is an Internet of Things (IoT)-based solution to prevent traffic accidents in Kigali, Rwanda. The system utilizes advanced technology to monitor vehicle speed, identity, and position, including GPS, RFID cards, RFID 522 modules, and IR sensors. While RFID cards facilitate easy vehicle identification, RFID 522 modules identify speed infractions, IR sensors guarantee precise speed measurement, and GPS tracking offers real-time monitoring capabilities. Campaigns to raise public awareness will assist the system, which will be smoothly incorporated into Kigali’s road network and examined for patterns and trends. Ensuring seamless implementation and enforcement will require collaboration with municipal authorities, law enforcement agencies, and transportation authorities. Anticipated results include a significant decrease in traffic accidents, increased traffic safety precautions, and improved traffic management techniques. Advanced technology like IR sensors, RFID cards, RFID 522 modules, and GPS are used by Kigali, Rwanda’s IoT-based Electric Vehicle Speed Limiter Monitoring System, to track vehicle position, identification, and speed. It conducts public awareness campaigns, analyses speed-related accidents, and integrates them with Kigali’s road network. Smooth implementation is ensured by cooperation with local law enforcement and authorities, which lowers accident rates and improves traffic management techniques. The system aims to improve road safety and foster a safer atmosphere for all Kigali drivers.

Ambient ionization mass spectrometry provides screening of selective androgen receptor modulators

Ambient ionization mass spectrometry allows for analysis of samples in their natural state, i.e., with no sample pre-treatment. It can be viewed as a fast, simple, and economical analysis, but its main disadvantages include a lower analytical performance due to the presence of complex sample matrix and the lack of chromatographic separation prior to the introduction of the sample into the mass spectrometer. Here we present an application of two ambient ionization mass spectrometry techniques, i.e., Desorption Atmospheric Pressure Photoionization and Dielectric Barrier Discharge Ionization, for the analysis of known Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators, which represent common compounds of abuse in professional and semiprofessional sport. Eight real samples of illegal food supplements, seized by the local law enforcement, were used to test the performance of the ambient mass spectrometry and the results were validated against a newly developed targeted LC-UV-MS/MS method performed in multiple reaction monitoring mode with an external calibration for each analyte. In order to decide whether or not the compound can be declared as present, we proposed a system of rules for the interpretation of the obtained spectra. The criteria are based on mass spectrum matching (5–10 ppm accuracy from the theoretical exact mass and a correct isotopic pattern), duration of the mass signal (three or five consecutive scans, depending on the instrumentation used), and intensity above the background noise (threefold increase in intensity and absolute intensity above 5E4 or 1E5, depending on the instrumentation). When applying these criteria, good agreement was found between the tested methods. Ambient ionization techniques were effective at detecting SARMs at pharmacologically relevant doses, i.e., approximately above 1 mg per capsule, although they may fail to detect lower levels or isomeric species. It is demonstrated that when adhering to a set of clear and consistent rules, ambient mass spectrometry can be employed as a qualitative technique for the screening of illegal SARMs with sufficient confidence and without the necessity to perform a regular LC-MS analysis.

Relationship between Civilian Injuries Caused during Contact with Law Enforcement and Community-Level Sociodemographic Characteristics.

Civilian injuries caused during contact with law enforcement personnel erode community trust in policing, impact individual well-being, and exacerbate existing health inequities. We assessed the relationship between ZIP code-level rates of civilian injuries caused during legal interventions and community-level sociodemographic characteristics using Illinois hospital data from 2016 to 2022. We developed multivariable Poisson regression models to examine whether legal intervention injury rates differed by race-ethnicity and community economic disadvantage across three geographic regions of Illinois representing different levels of urbanization. Over the study period, 4976 civilian injuries were treated in Illinois hospitals (rate of 5.6 per 100,000 residents). Compared to non-Hispanic white residents, non-Hispanic Black residents demonstrated 5.5-10.5 times higher injury rates across the three geographic regions, and Hispanic-Latino residents demonstrated higher rates in Chicago and suburban Cook County, but lower rates in the rest of the state. In most regions, models showed that as the percent of minority residents in a ZIP code increased, injury rates among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic-Latino residents decreased. As community economic disadvantage increased at the ZIP code level, civilian injury rates increased. Communities with the highest injury rates involving non-Hispanic white residents were significantly more economically unequal and disadvantaged. While the injury rates were consistently and substantially higher among non-Hispanic Black residents throughout the state, the findings illustrate that the association between overall civilian injuries caused during contact with law enforcement and community sociodemographic characteristics varied across regions. Data on local law enforcement agency policies and procedures are needed to better identify appropriate interventions.

Unveiling the nexus between maltreatment of smallholder youth farmers and agricultural productivity in Tanzania

Despite global and developing countries' efforts to address maltreatment across various sectors, limited attention has been given to its impact on agriculture. This study investigates the effects of maltreatment of smallholder youth farmers specifically physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse on agricultural productivity among smallholder youth farmers. Employing a statistical research design, data from the Tanzania Integrated Labor Force Survey 2020/21 are analyzed. The study utilizes a Multivariate Probit (MVP) model to estimate determinants of maltreatment, and instrumental variable models (Two Stage Least Squares, Two Stage Residual Inclusion, and Control Function Approach) to estimate the effects of maltreatment on agricultural productivity with proximity to local law enforcement as an instrument to control endogeneity. The results reveal that Tanga (21.46%), Morogoro (17.08%), Kilimanjaro (17.06%), and Dodoma (15.00%) exhibit a high prevalence of maltreatment practices among youths, whereas Geita, Kusini Pemba, Kusini Unguja, Mjini Magharibi, Njombe, Rukwa, Simiyu, and Tabora display relatively few instances. Furthermore, factors such as gender, age, residence, and disabilities are key determinants of maltreatment. Additionally, maltreatment has varying effects in reducing agricultural productivity significantly such that physical abuse (β = −0.2315, p < 0.01), sexual abuse (β = −0.4281, p < 0.01), and emotional abuse (β = −0.1965, p < 0.01). This study implies that addressing maltreatment is crucial for enhancing the well-being and productivity of smallholder youth farmers. Moreover, it informs policy on the need for targeted interventions to mitigate maltreatment and recommends gender-sensitive agricultural policies, rural development initiatives, educational and skill-building programs, disability-inclusive policies, workplace support, and mental health resources, and the integration of technology for sustainable agricultural practices.

The Challenges and Opportunities of Environmental Law Enforcement: A Systematic Review

Introduction: The formation of environmental law in many countries worldwide will unavoidably be promoted and coordinated by the non-governmental environmental groups currently in the world. In addition, it will benefit some developing countries where environmental protection is not a priority, environmental laws are not well-established, and oversight is not rigorous enough. Objective of research: This paper aims to explore the challenges and opportunities of environmental law enforcement in many countries in the world. Methods: A systematic review was used in this study. Based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, this study followed the steps of a systematic review of the literature (PRISMA). The final sample of 35 publications was analyzed, considering the year of publication, methods utilized, geographical location, the topic of challenges, and opportunities in enforcing environmental law. Responding to environmental crime is largely the responsibility of government enforcement and regulatory authorities, whether at the national, subnational, or municipal levels. Results and Discussion: The primary reaction agencies in most areas of the world are police, customs and border protection, and environmental regulatory agencies. To assist developing nations in improving environmental legal instruments and supervision; to achieve the ultimate goal of regional and even global environmental law coordination; to train relevant persons, relevant agencies, and other topics in the necessary environmental skills and knowledge; and to transfer and teach environmental knowledge and law within a specified time frame. Conclusion: Although some countries have a thorough legislative structure for environmental protection, local government independence and law enforcement must be improved. The ability of environmental law to serve a purpose is critical in determining whether the measures should be fully implemented.

Enhancing Justice and Efficiency: Advocating for the Adoption of Cognitive Interviewing Techniques Across Local and Federal Law Enforcement Agencies

Enhancing Justice and Efficiency: Advocating for the Adoption of Cognitive Interviewing Techniques Across Local and Federal Law Enforcement Agencies

Immigrant Threat or Institutional Context? Examining Police Agency and County Context and the Implementation of the 287(g) Program

ABSTRACT During the early 2000s, the U.S. government began to partner with local law enforcement agencies for assistance with the enforcement of immigration laws. Participation in the voluntary 287(g) program by law enforcement agencies was an important early iteration of this new strategy. Although relatively few agencies adopted 287(g), its implementation was a critical turning point in the nation’s approach to immigration enforcement and has been linked to a wide range of negative consequences for Latinos, including higher levels of violent victimization, and decreases in police trust. This study advances knowledge about the factors associated with 287(g) program adoption during the late 2000s. We examined the role of agency ethnoracial diversity and fiscal capacity and several theoretically relevant indicators of the broader county context. Based on a sample of 880 law enforcement agencies located in 233 counties, rare event logistic regression models indicate that the strongest predictors of 287(g) adoption were the share of county population estimated to be undocumented immigrants, the degree of support for the Republican Presidential candidate, and the relative unemployment of Hispanic and non-Hispanic White residents. Overall, the results suggest that 287(g) was primarily a political response to concerns about the potential threats associated with undocumented immigration.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a 5-day training on science-based methods of interrogation with U.S. federal, state, and local law enforcement investigators.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a 5-day training on science-based methods of interrogation with U.S. federal, state, and local law enforcement investigators.

Unveiling the threat: Balochistan's path to congo virus endemicity

Dear Madam, The detection of 16 cases of Crimean Congo Haemorrhagic Fever Virus (CCHFV) in the Balochistan province this year (1) and a 2020 study indicating a seroprevalence of 2.7% in humans and 36.2% in livestock in Pakistan, with Balochistan showing a significantly higher prevalence in the collected samples (2), has raised concerns about the region's susceptibility to becoming an endemic area for this tick-borne zoonotic disease. Balochistan's arid climate creates an ideal environment for Hyalomma Marginatum ticks to thrive, thereby increasing the risk of transmission. Rural areas, which constitute a significant proportion of Balochistan, are generally more affected due to livestock farming, which plays a significant role in Pakistan’s economy. However, urban areas in Pakistan experience higher infection rates during Eid-Ul-Adha when there is a large-scale animal trade, with increased incidence in high-risk groups, like butchers, veterinarians, and healthcare professionals. The region also encounters challenges due to the cross-border movement of livestock and infected individuals with neighbouring countries, like Afghanistan and Iran, where the virus is endemic (3). Another contributing factor to the endemicity of the virus is the perception of neglect, resulting in limited resources, inadequate vector control and healthcare infrastructure, and insufficient awareness and preventive measures (3), which create significant obstacles in the early detection and management of virus-borne diseases. A Bulgarian vaccine introduced in 1974 led to a decline in cases from 1974 to 1996, but there is insufficient statistical evidence to attribute this decline solely to the vaccine. Thus, there is no universally recognised vaccination available for the virus currently. However, researchers are working to create an effective vaccine (4). Currently, treatment for CCHFV involves supportive care and antivirals, like ribavirin. Although treatments-FDA-approved treatments in use, including steroids, convalescent serum, and specific immunoglobulins, it’s important to note that these treatments are experimental and require further evaluation of their efficacy and safety profile (5). The most effective approach to reducing the prevalence of CCHFV in Balochistan is through prevention methods, including raising awareness among high-risk groups, especially butchers who should wear appropriate protection, handle slaughter in designated areas, and ensure proper waste disposal (4). It is also crucial to discourage tourists from visiting areas where ticks are prevalent, and local law enforcement should limit the unrestricted movement of livestock. Additionally, programmes should be introduced to vaccinate animals against the virus, and suspected animals should be quarantined.

Lame duck law enforcement

Election losses for incumbent sheriffs result in lame ducks who oversee local law enforcement for as long as 10 months before the next sheriff takes office. Monthly arrest rates decline 11% subsequent to a primary election loss and 20.3% after losing a general election; violent crime arrests drop 24.8% in the two months following a general election loss. Our results demonstrate the costs of electoral turnover where day-to-day duties are sensitive to effort and conscientiousness.