Local Entrepreneurial Ecosystem Research Articles

The role and effectiveness of non-formal training programmes for entrepreneurship in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic literature review

ABSTRACT Entrepreneurship is growing in popularity as a tool to combat the challenges of unemployment and economic development in sub-Saharan Africa. A host of training programme offerings have emerged to mitigate the challenges of starting and sustaining a business in this context. Non-formal trainings (educational activities outside formal places of learning such as universities or schools) can help entrepreneurs develop essential business skills. A systematic literature review demonstrates how non-formal training programmes for entrepreneurship are evaluated across sub-Saharan Africa. We searched SCOPUS and EBSCO databases with the following keywords and their synonyms: ‘training’, ‘entrepreneurship’ and ‘sub-Saharan Africa’. The final selection returned 49 articles that discuss non-formal training programmes in sub-Saharan Africa. Our results suggest significant variation in training types and their effectiveness. Beyond descriptive analytics, we show that a more nuanced understanding of the context-specific entrepreneurial environment needs to be considered when implementing and designing a programme and that this should be coupled with more rigorous effectiveness evaluations. We propose a deeper analysis of the role of human capital within the setting of local entrepreneurial ecosystems as well as the contextualization of training material and participant selection as a promising start to develop more effective training programmes for entrepreneurship.

New venture legitimacy diffusion beyond the local entrepreneurial ecosystem: the transformative role of brokerage and network activities

PurposeNew ventures often encounter legitimation challenges due to their liability of newness and foreignness. This particularly applies to the legitimacy beyond the local entrepreneurial ecosystem (EE). The present study examines how new ventures’ local legitimacy influences legitimacy diffusion beyond the local EEs. It considers both the direct relationship between new venture local legitimacy and its diffusion beyond the EE and the moderating effects of legitimacy brokerage and network activities on this relationship.Design/methodology/approachA hierarchical multiple linear regression is employed to test a series of hypotheses using the data of 228 Finnish firms which was collected with an online survey.FindingsFirms that garner active local legitimacy have a greater chance to diffuse that legitimacy beyond an existing ecosystem. Results also reveal that network activities and legitimacy brokerage enhance (positively moderate) the association between (passive and active) local legitimacy and its diffusion.Originality/valueThe present study contributes to and extends the literature at the intersection of new venture legitimacy and legitimacy diffusion beyond the existing EE – an aspect which has not been sufficiently studied.

Inadequacies in Local Entrepreneurial Ecosystems that Impede Growth-Oriented Entrepreneurship in Lesotho

Entrepreneurship is acknowledged globally as a driver of unemployment reduction, poverty alleviation and national economic well-being. However, many nations, especially developing ones, struggle to sustain growth-oriented entrepreneurship due to limitations in their entrepreneurial ecosystems. With an unemployment rate of 28.9% as of 2019, Lesotho is one of the countries struggling to sustain effective entrepreneurial ecosystems. This article seeks to identify the inadequacies in local entrepreneurial ecosystems that impede the emergence of entrepreneurs and small-and-medium enterprises in Lesotho. This study, grounded in systems theory, utilised a qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews to collect data from twenty-five budding entrepreneurs. Data analysis showed that financial institutions funding, entrepreneurial apathy, poor infrastructure, dearth of talents and leaders, and inadequate support networks were the main barriers to entrepreneurship in Lesotho. This study raises awareness of Lesotho's entrepreneurial ecosystem's basic flaws, which hinder growth-oriented business. The study is expected to improve policymakers’ intervention strategies and attract more scholars' attention to the phenomenon. The study is limited in scope due to the participants' concentration in Maseru, the capital city. This geographical restriction is a limitation to the extent that businesses operating in the city and those operating in the countryside may experience different systemic impacts. Future research should explore broader scope.

Redefining rural entrepreneurship: The impact of business ecosystems on the success of rural businesses in Extremadura, Spain

PURPOSE: Regarding the growth of public policies fostering rural entrepreneurship, the primary objectives of this work involve examining the concept of rural entrepreneurship, identifying key aspects that differentiate it from non-rural entrepreneurship, and assessing the role of the local entrepreneurial ecosystem in supporting the initiation and growth of rural ventures. To achieve these goals, the study adopts a novel approach by integrating an analysis of rural entrepreneurship features with an exploration of the entrepreneurial ecosystem’s impact. METHODOLOGY: After a review of the previous academic literature, the characteristics of rural entrepreneurship have been delimited, distinguishing it from non-rural. The research results have been obtained using a questionnaire, after a descriptive analysis of the sample, and an analysis of the difference in means by contrasting hypotheses using IBM SPSS Statistics 26. FINDINGS: This article explores the factors that contribute to rural entrepreneurship, challenging the notion that geographic location is the sole defining characteristic. Through the conducted investigation, it has been determined that a company’s classification as rural is not solely based on its geographical location in rural areas or involvement in primary sector activities. Other aspects, such as a strong connection with the local community or the ability to create value, are also essential in defining a rural enterprise. Additionally, it examines how business ecosystems can foster the growth and success of rural entrepreneurship. IMPLICATIONS: This study provides an analysis of how rural entrepreneurship can drive endogenous development in rural areas. It also offers insights for government entities and policymakers to implement effective support measures and strategies in business ecosystems within rural environments. This study highlights that the resources found in rural entrepreneurial ecosystems may not be sufficient to support rural entrepreneurship. It’s important to acknowledge that rural entrepreneurship requires specific resources that may not currently be available in business ecosystems. To increase the number of viable rural businesses, new resources tailored to rural entrepreneurship must be created, leveraging the area’s endogenous resources and growth models. ORIGINALITY AND VALUE: This study examines the distinctive attributes of rural entrepreneurship, with a deliberate departure from exclusive emphasis on geographical location or primary economic sector. Drawing upon empirical research conducted among a cohort of rural enterprises, the analysis reveals that neither physical location nor primary sector affiliation substantially contribute to the establishment of these rural businesses. Instead, a profound connection to, and a heightened sense of belonging within the rural milieu emerge as pivotal determinants. Furthermore, rural entrepreneurship emerges as a promising avenue for the development of the region, offering substantial growth prospects. The investigation encompasses a scrutiny of the resources within the rural business ecosystem and their capacity to stimulate rural entrepreneurial activity. This emerging focal point represents a novel field of concern for governmental bodies and political institutions operating in rural areas.

The role of universities in fostering entrepreneurship: strategies and best practices

Today, entrepreneurship is crucial for economic growth and innovation. Therefore, we seek to analyze the role of universities in fostering entrepreneurship and to learn about strategies and good practices to promote entrepreneurship among students. To this end, a multimodal systematic review was conducted. The results highlight that integrating entrepreneurship into the curriculum, providing financial support and access to resources, establishing incubators and co-working spaces, networking with industry and local entrepreneurial ecosystems, and offering mentoring and business advice are effective strategies to promote entrepreneurship among university students. In addition, five key elements are identified to create an enabling environment for successful entrepreneurship: fostering an entrepreneurial culture, providing education and training, offering financial support, and establishing partnerships for mentoring and business advice. It recommends allocating resources, implementing mentoring programs, fostering interdisciplinary cooperation, knowledge transfer and collaboration with business and civil society, and continuously evaluating and improving entrepreneurship policies. In short, it offers a comprehensive view of the role of universities in promoting entrepreneurship and provides recommendations for its promotion.

A life cycle perspective of startup accelerators

AbstractAccelerators are broadly seen as platforms that government, non-profit, and for-profit organizations use to fast-track the development of entrepreneurial and SME business capabilities. Typically, this occurs as competitive, time-constrained, cohort-centered, authentic learning experiences supported by mentoring and access to the local entrepreneurial ecosystem, management development programs, and financial resources. Interest in how the ventures in the development programs evolve and contribute to the entrepreneurial ecosystem is increasing (Cantner et al. in Small Business Economics, 57, 407–423, 2021), but how the accelerators evolve has yet to be adequately researched. To better understand how accelerators evolve, we adapt Churchill and Lewis (Harvard Business Review, 61(3), 30–50, 1983) conceptual framework of the stages of small business development. This study investigated the life cycle of Australian accelerators from 2013 to 2020. The accelerators ranged from short-term “pop-up” programs to permanent programs. We found through a series of four selected exemplar case studies that these accelerators exhibited a similar four-stage life cycle to their participants, including (1) gestation, (2) survival, (3) viability, and (4) decline or renewal. We also found that external support was a critical issue that determined viability. Our findings support the development of accelerator management to be more agile, resilient, and entrepreneurial, which can confront those adopting a more standardized franchise model. In addition, we adapt Kohler (Business Horizons, 59(3), 347–357, 2016) work on corporate accelerators into an inclusive framework for all forms of accelerators, including considering their geographic context or Place, the actors involved with the accelerator or its People, the accelerator’s value Proposition to participants, the accelerator’s Processes and most fundamentally, its Purpose that will contribute to the entrepreneurial ecosystem practice and literature. This research provides practical considerations on positioning, suitable business models, and maximized operations.

THE EFFECT OF THE PARTICIPATION OF SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEURS ON ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENT IN APPLIED ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION,

An applied entrepreneurship program was designed as theoretical, game-based and mentor supported for 13-week was implemented twice; to assess its effects on students’ perceived behavioral control, entrepreneurial intention, knowledge and skills. The matching pretest-posttest data were used in the analyses. The program was not found to lead to an increase in entrepreneurial intention. However, they were found to bear a strong potential for more sustainable development of these aspects. The program was implemented as a first in terms of its contribution to the local entrepreneurial ecosystem. The aim of the program was to question its own structure; that is, to find out if the participation of entrepreneurs – a costly feature of the program – really does make a difference in fostering entrepreneurial intentions in the participants. Another unique aspect of the study is that the program brought together actors from academic, business and non-profit fields to collaborate.

The Role of Embeddedness of Migrant Start-ups in Local Entrepreneurial Ecosystems During the COVID-19 Crisis

As with all start-ups, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to a changing environment for migrant start-ups. These changes have posed many challenges to altering strategic behaviour and approaches to driving business. We explored migrant start-ups’ embeddedness in entrepreneurial ecosystems by analysing data from 14 semi-structured interviews with start-ups from Berlin's knowledge-intensive business services sector. We argue that the success of migrant start-ups during crises is dependent mainly on the embeddedness in the local entrepreneurial ecosystem. Thus, we expect entrepreneurs to utilise local networks, infrastructures and interactions to help them cope with the challenges and pave the way for local and international business activities. Our results indicate that embedding in local entrepreneurial ecosystems and a sense of belonging, especially during the business formation phase, play a vital role for migrant start-ups in general and crisis. Revitalising the concept of local embeddedness while considering business development stages, this study challenges the prevailing notion of transnational networks as the sole determinant of entrepreneurial success. Instead, we advocate for greater recognition of the significance of accessing local resources, including market knowledge, social relationships, and institutional support, as fundamental factors driving business development and crisis management within the host country. By recognising and nurturing these local resources, policymakers and support organisations can create an enabling environment that empowers migrant start-ups to thrive, adapt, and contribute to the local EE and economic wealth.

Food entrepreneurship and self-employment in an island context

PurposeThe aim is to advance the conceptualisation of island entrepreneurship by investigating how the island context, for example, industry characteristics, social context and formal and informal institutions, influences the development of artisan food businesses in that context.Design/methodology/approachAn applied, qualitative and participatory research approach was implemented. Data were collected during a business development process focusing on food artisans in the Åland Islands. In total, 19 business owners participated in the process. Key informants and public officers were interviewed, and the literature was reviewed. Interviews were analysed using phenomenography to identify representative categories, and the literature was analysed using content analysis.FindingsIsland characteristics and context, local institutions, the quality of social capital and gendered institutions influence business activities positively and negatively. Island entrepreneurship entails mobilising agencies to find innovative solutions that enable businesses to overcome obstacles. Most previous research treats business activities as entrepreneurship; however, as self-employment is essential in the island context, it should be highlighted in future studies.Research limitations/implicationsThis study illustrates how the island context influences the business development of small firms. Results indicate that local policies (1) benefitting female entrepreneurs, (2) supporting local businesses and (3) promoting locally produced artisan food could generate benefits for the entire artisan food businesses.Practical implicationsLocal policies that (1) benefit female entrepreneurs, (2) support local businesses and (3) promote locally produced artisan food have the potential to generate benefits for the entire trade. Policies can benefit from an understanding of the role played by different ecosystem actors. Promoting self-employment can generate benefits for the local entrepreneurial ecosystem by providing agglomeration and helping to solve some challenges caused by the characteristics of islands.Originality/valueEmpirically, this research enhances the knowledge of post-productive responses in the island context. Theoretically, the study advances the conceptualisation of research on the island entrepreneurship context and the local food debate.

Social capital and trust: The ‘fuel’ of local integration of rural and small-town enterprises

In the present article we examine a sub-segment of the locally integrated social group: rural small entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs are especially interesting from the integration point of view since in the current academic discourse, entrepreneurship is considered as a contextual process, in which entrepreneurs depend on local information and resources, and base their activities on the needs of the local environment, therefore, rural entrepreneurs are commonly studied through the concepts of local embeddedness, social capital and trust. The aim of our paper is to contribute to the understanding of the those mechanisms: the impact of trust among entrepreneurs and their social networks resulting the local integration of this rural group. The study based on 25 semi-structured in-depth interviews, focuses on the role of values, attitudes, social capital and trust networks in local economic success in three Hungarian settlements of different size: a small village of 300, a small town of 3,000 and a medium-sized town of 30,000 inhabitants. Our conclusion is that in case of rural small entrepreneurship, community resources (values, attitudes, social capital and trust) are of chief role in the foundation and existence of a local entrepreneurial ecosystem, however, their efforts have to be accompanied by an institutional framework to make them sustainable in the long term.

International cooperation projects in support of entrepreneurship in southern Tunisia: activities and relations with public actors

In Tunisia, international cooperation projects in support of entrepreneurship boomed after the 2011 revolution. This paper analyses to what extent such projects have built the capacities of those involved in local entrepreneurial “ecosystems”. It analyses the main international cooperation projects supporting entrepreneurship in the Kebili and Medenine governorates (southern Tunisia) between 2011 and 2020. The activities of these projects were mapped and two workshops were conducted with actors of the local entrepreneurial ecosystems to discuss their implementation. Fourteen international cooperation projects were identified. These projects mostly focused on increasing the number of enterprises created, e.g., by supporting training, networking and sometimes funding. However, only one project provided support after creation of businesses, and few promoted a culture of entrepreneurship. Overall, these projects generally based their actions on the existing ecosystem of public actors in charge of supporting entrepreneurship. They made limited attempts to build the capacities of those actors, evaluate the functioning of local entrepreneurial ecosystems and coordinate among themselves.

Uncommon methods and metrics for local entrepreneurial ecosystems

Scholars are always searching for better data, new models and novel theories. This special issue presents new empirical approaches for studying local entrepreneurial ecosystems. Our objective is to provide insights into the state of the art of the new methodologies and uncommon data to study the dynamics and functioning of local entrepreneurial ecosystems. ‘Uncommon data’ refers to curated data from digital sources, with bespoke indicators derived from social media and interpretations derived from observation. The papers propose new methods and measures and draw upon a wide variety of empirical evidence, from large sample analyses of archival data to detailed qualitative investigations. The authors outline the need for multidisciplinary approaches and dynamic research designs that incorporate firm-level dynamics as a key dimension of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Taken together, the papers provide important insights into the major issues facing policymakers and researchers of entrepreneurship.

Artificial intelligence and entrepreneurial ecosystems: understanding the implications of algorithmic decision-making for startup communities

Purpose Entrepreneurs are increasingly relying on artificial intelligence (AI) to assist in creating and scaling new ventures. Research on entrepreneurs’ use of AI algorithms (machine learning, natural language processing, artificial neural networks) has focused on the intra-organizational implications of AI. The purpose of this paper is to explore how entrepreneurs’ adoption of AI influences their inter- and meta-organizational relationships. Design/methodology/approach To address the limited understanding of the consequences of AI for communities of entrepreneurs, this paper develops a theory to explain how AI algorithms influence the micro (entrepreneur) and macro (system) dynamics of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Findings The theory’s main insight is that substituting AI for entrepreneurial ecosystem interactions influences not only entrepreneurs’ pursuit of opportunities but also the coordination of their local entrepreneurial ecosystems. Originality/value The theory contributes by drawing attention to the inter-organizational implications of AI, explaining how the decision to substitute AI for human interactions is a micro-foundation of ecosystems, and motivating a research agenda at the intersection of AI and entrepreneurial ecosystems.

Norwegian entrepreneurs (1880s-1930s) and their “new America”: a historical perspective on transnational entrepreneurship and ecosystem development in the Russian Arctic

PurposeThis paper aims to present a historical case study of Norwegian transnational entrepreneurs (1880s–1930s) and the ecosystems that they founded in Russia’s Arctic periphery. Drawing from the contemporary transnational entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial ecosystem literature, and inspired by AnnaLee Saxenian’s concept of “brain circulation,” this study explores the journey and impact of these entrepreneurs in a time of evolving political turbulence.Design/methodology/approachThis study applies a mixed-methodology approach, drawing from nine qualitative interviews held in 2021 and secondary material, including historical books, a podcast, videos and archival data.FindingsThe Norwegian entrepreneurs were both “pulled” by and “pushed” to the Russian region, their “New America,” where they could apply their personal skills and exploit their rich social and financial capital to establish a local entrepreneurial ecosystem. However, radical political change altered the context, which led many of the entrepreneurs to re-migrate to Norway.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper demonstrates the role of the political context for contemporary entrepreneurship and management research, as transnational entrepreneurs and international expatriates remain vulnerable to political change.Practical implicationsPublic-policy actors and managers in companies need to support highly-skilled transnational entrepreneurs, including expatriates, in a setting with turbulence, crisis and even war, to foster the sustainable contribution of entrepreneurial migrants to regional economic development across different countries.Originality/valueThis paper presents an original, novel case study on the historical role of transnational entrepreneurs across different cultural settings, their impact on a foreign peripheral location, including social-network building and evolving political change in the historical context. The findings are relevant for contemporary management literature.

Localization of global networks: new mandates for MNEs in Toronto’s innovation economy

AbstractThe current wave of technological transformation is altering dynamics between the global and local scales. This transformation affects the dynamic linkages between multinational enterprises (MNEs) and the host economies in which they invest. This article examines how MNEs in leading technology sectors are re-evaluating their relationship to Toronto’s innovation economy. It employs elements of three conceptual approaches on global production networks, global innovation networks, and the locational strategies of MNEs. Firms engage with the host region in new ways by tapping into knowledge sources to diversify the locational base of their R&D activities, as well as with local entrepreneurial ecosystems in emerging technologies and industry niches.

How the Small Business Institute® Program Helped Spark Entrepreneurial Interest and Led to a Named College at Rider University

This article opens an exploration of how entrepreneurship programs in many universities got their start from the Small Business Institute® (SBI) student team consulting programs. It is a case study that documents the role played by the SBI programs at an AACSB-accredited school, which resulted in the creation of an entrepreneurship major, an entrepreneurship center, a named school, and many other activities. It discusses the kind of impact the Small Business Institute® has had on the overall entrepreneurial ecosystem, as the structure of the SBI program brings together local businesses, students, and faculty members, and the relationships that have formed have an influence on all participants. Using this case as an example, we argue that this interconnection between students, the institution, and the local entrepreneurial ecosystem is worthy of greater attention, and propose a method to do that.

Конфигурация региональных предпринимательских экосистем через призму пространственного и иерархического анализа

Nowadays, entrepreneurship should be analysed from the perspective of interconnectedness and mutual influence of elements of regional economic systems, since the type and intensity of their interaction determine the emergence of windows of opportunity for entrepreneurs. Thus, the present study uses an ecosystem approach. We hypothesise that the spatial configuration of the performance of regional entrepreneurial ecosystems (REES) largely depends on the interaction between local entrepreneurial ecosystems, as well as on the cumulative impact of REES on local entrepreneurial ecosystems. Using the methodology of spatial and hierarchical analysis, the study investigates the dependence of the development of local entrepreneurial ecosystems on their embeddedness in regional entrepreneurial ecosystems, assesses the spatial connectivity of REES, and considers relationships between small and large businesses in regional entrepreneurial ecosystems. The global Moran’s I and the Getis-Ord statistics for regional entrepreneurial ecosystems used to assess their spatial connectivity were calculated based on the analysis of data concerning the shipping volume of large and medium enterprises from 2315 municipalities of 85 constituent entities of the Russian Federation. At the level of local entrepreneurial ecosystems, the study revealed the link between the variation in the values of the shipping volume of business entities and their belonging to specific regional entrepreneurial ecosystems (constituent entities of the Russian Federation). In addition, a positive relationship was found between the shipping volume of large and medium enterprises operating in local entrepreneurial ecosystems, the shipping volume of goods produced by small enterprises and the average revenue of individual entrepreneurs. Considering the identified factors of spatial determination of regional entrepreneurial ecosystems and the closeness of interregional and intermunicipal ties of local entrepreneurial ecosystems, it is possible to generalise the best practices of spatial organisation of regional business communities and create effective development models.

Coworking spaces as talent hubs: The imperative for community building in the changing context of new work

Coworking spaces are flexible and shared work environments that make a significant effort to connect users with supportive networks that commonly result in efficient work outputs, a high level of collaboration and knowledge transfer. Recent years have seen swift growth and popularisation of the coworking model, making these spaces an integral part of local entrepreneurial ecosystems and transforming them into the localised pools of specialised talent. However, little research has been conducted to understand the role of human talent in coworking spaces, indicating a knowledge gap in human resource management and the role of contemporary coworking environments. Therefore, the purpose of the following paper is to contextualize coworking spaces as (local) talent hubs by investigating how they tend to build their identity on their userbase. The manuscript explores the managerial practices and mediation techniques by presenting empirical evidence and subsequent analysis of talent attraction and retention mechanisms commonly used in coworking environments. The study shows that by facilitating interaction and collaboration between users, coworking spaces offer support throughout the business life cycle and identify themselves as local accelerators of entrepreneurship and talent development within their local environments.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11846-021-00487-4.

Meeting its Waterloo? Recycling in entrepreneurial ecosystems after anchor firm collapse

ABSTRACT The ‘recycling’ of people, capital, and ideas within an entrepreneurial ecosystem is a key process driving high-growth entrepreneurship. Skilled workers who leave firms after successful exits or firm collapse bring knowledge and insights that they can use to start new ventures or work at existing scale-up firms. This makes large anchor firms important actors in attracting workers who may subsequently recycle into the local ecosystem. However, there is limited empirical research on recycling into an ecosystem after the loss of an anchor firm. This paper develops a novel methodology using career history data to track recycling into ecosystems. The paper develops a study of Waterloo, Ontario, home to the smartphone manufacturer Blackberry, whose decline in 2008 represented a significant shock to the local entrepreneurial ecosystem. We find that alumni of this firm engaged in very little high-growth entrepreneurship, instead entering the ecosystem as technology employees at high-growth scale-up firms. This was aided by the region's increased institutional capacity to match skilled workers with new ventures, ensuring the continued success of the ecosystem over time. These findings provide a more nuanced understanding of the role of anchor firms in entrepreneurial ecosystems and how recycling affects the dynamics of entrepreneurial ecosystems.

E-tourism: How ICTs Help the Local Tourist District Drive Economic Vitality. The Case of Campania, Italy

The purpose of the study is to answer to the following Research Question (RQ): “What are the perception and the application of ICTs for e-tourism in different LTDs in Campania?” To answer the RQ a qualitative study was done with a questionnaire to 144 managers of Local Tourist Districts (LTDs) in Campania, Italy. The questionnaire was summited in 2017. The acquired data were processed using the factor analyses. The study of the region’s 12 LTDs allowed for the identification of three district typologies i.e. three homogeneous groups. The one, defined as proactive, exhibited positive results thanks to the skills and competencies of its managers. By contrast, despite the wealth of attractions, the other districts did not fare as well mostly due to management inadequacies and organizational culture. The research was limited to only 12 LTDs located in Italy. Possible measures to address operational and cultural problems in the region have been identified in implementation of ITCs’ applications to foster e-tourism and the local entrepreneurial ecosystem as well as the accumulation of knowledge to enhance the awareness of the education as a strategic factor [ Masele , J. J. ( 2015 ). Towards e-commerce use for pro-poor tourism promotion: Local providers’ ICT training needs in Tanzania. International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management, 12(4), 1550020]. Moreover, at the national and international level, other strategic elements can be identified in: analysis of good practices and cross contamination of proactive district managers with the participated and insensitive district managers.It is the first research paper on the Campania districts since their inception. The analysis of the phenomenon may be extended to other countries too.