Local Drinking Water Supply Research Articles

Pedal Operated Low Head Water Pump

Abstract: The primary goal of this project was to design, construct, and conduct an experimental investigation into the operation of a Pedal Powered Water Pump (POWP), which is used for irrigation of gardens and local drinking water supplies. POWP is made up of a pedal-powered pump. The single-acting pump is set up on its stand such that the driven shaft of the pump is directly in line with the wheel of the bicycle. By moving the connecting rod forward and backward while pedaling, the bicycle rotates the pump, which releases water from the sump. POWP offers irrigation and drinking water in rural areas without electricity. POWP offers clean air, no pollution, and wholesome activity. POWP lowers the rising cost of energy. POWP is intended to be a portable irrigation system that may be utilized in a variety of locations. The experimental inquiry was carried out, and the POWP's performance was tested at various rpms. The findings show that the POWP had discharged a significant amount. The POWP uses solely manual power, which significantly lowers the utility expense. According to experimental findings,mechanical energy is employed to elevate water up toa height of 2 to 5 feet

Internal nitrogen and phosphorus loading in a seasonally stratified reservoir: Implications for eutrophication management of deep-water ecosystems.

Water eutrophication is a serious global issue because of excess external and internal nutrient inputs. Understanding the intensity and contribution of internal nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loading in deep-water ecosystems is of great significance for water body eutrophication management. In this study, we combined intact sediment core incubation, high-resolution peeper (HR-Peeper) sampling, and analysis of N and P forms and other environmental factors in the water column and sediments to evaluate the contributions of internal N and P loading to water eutrophication by N and P fluxes across the sediment-water interface (SWI) of the Panjiakou Reservoir (PJKR), a deep-water ecosystem where eutrophication threatens the security of the local drinking water supply in North China. The results indicated that the PJKR showed obvious thermal and dissolved oxygen (DO) stratification in the warm seasons and full mixing in the cold seasons. The mean DO concentration was 9.9 and 3.55mg/L in the epilimnion and hypolimnion, respectively, in warm seasons and 10.7mg/L in cold seasons. The sediment acted as a source of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), NH4+-N, and NO2--N and a sink of NO3--N. The SRP fluxes were 5.28±4.34 and 2.30±1.93mgm-2·d-1 in warm and cold seasons, respectively, and the dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) fluxes were -0.66±47.84 and 44.04±84.05mgm-2·d-1. Seasonal hypoxia accelerated the release of P rather than N from the sediments in warm seasons, which came mainly from Fe-P and Org-P under anoxic conditions. The strong negative NO3--N flux (diffusion from the water column to the sediment) implied an intensive denitrification process at the SWI, which can counteract the release flux of NH4+-N and NO2--N, resulting in the sediment acting as a weak dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) source for the overlying water. We also found that internal N loading accounted for only ∼9% of the total N loading, while internal P loading accounted for 43% of the total P loading of the reservoir. Our results highlight that efforts to manage the internal loading of deep-water ecosystems should focus on P and seasonal hypoxia.

Groundwater Treatment to Remove PFAS: Restoring Local Drinking Water Supply in Orange County, California

Key TakeawaysUbiquitous occurrence of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in conventionally treated wastewater and the environment can result in drinking water supplies with concentrations exceeding local guidance values and/or regulatory limits.Swift design and implementation of treatment to remove PFAS from groundwater is underway in north and central Orange County, Calif., using ion exchange or granular activated carbon systems at the wellhead.Addressing PFAS places a major economic burden on water wholesalers and retailers; in this case, treatment will increase the cost that north and central Orange County water retailers pay for groundwater.This local supply will remain less costly than purchasing treated imported surface water as an alternative.

Sustainability characteristics of drinking water supply in the Netherlands

Abstract. Developments such as climate change and a growing demand for drinking water threaten the sustainability of drinking water supply worldwide. To deal with this threat, adaptation of drinking water supply systems is imperative, not only on a global and national scale but particularly on a local scale. This investigation sought to establish characteristics that describe the sustainability of local drinking water supply. The hypothesis of this research was that sustainability characteristics depend on the context that is analysed, and therefore, a variety of cases must be analysed to reach a better understanding of the sustainability of drinking water supply in the Netherlands. Therefore, three divergent cases on drinking water supply in the Netherlands were analysed. One case related to a short-term development (2018 summer drought), and two concerned long-term phenomena (changes in water quality and growth in drinking water demand). We used an integrated systems approach, describing the local drinking water supply system in terms of hydrological, technical, and socio-economic characteristics that determine the sustainability of a local drinking water supply system. To gain a perspective on the case study findings that are broader than the Dutch context, the sustainability aspects identified were paired with global aspects concerning sustainable drinking water supply. This resulted in the following set of hydrological, technical, and socio-economic sustainability characteristics: (1) water quality, water resource availability, and impact of drinking water abstraction; (2) reliability and resilience of the technical system and energy use and environmental impact; (3) drinking water availability, water governance, and land and water use. Elaboration of these sustainability characteristics and criteria into a sustainability assessment can provide information on the challenges and trade-offs inherent in the sustainable development and management of a local drinking water supply system.

Review: Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) in Abandoned Coal Mines of Shanxi, China

Excessive exploitation and massive coal mine closures have brought about extensive goafs in Shanxi where 8780 coal mines have been abandoned in the last 20 years. Acid mine drainage (AMD) poses severe environmental impact and has become a prominent problem in Shanxi abandoned coal mine areas, which has aggravated the shortage of water resources and threatened the safety of the local drinking water supply. The purpose of this review is to protect the precious water resources and maintain sustainable use in Shanxi coal mines and downstream. By retrieving and analyzing about 90 domestic and international publications, a critical review of the AMD research results in Shanxi abandoned coal mines is conducted from the perspective of the formation mechanism, migration and transformation, prediction, treatment and management. The results shows that pyrite is the prerequisite for the formation of AMD, oxygen is the inducement, water is the carrier, and Fe3+ and microorganisms are the catalyst. The roadway system and geological structure are the dominant control factors. Finally, current difficulties and future research are pointed out. It is necessary to further strengthen the systematic research on the geological and hydrogeological conditions of abandoned coal mines, and explore an efficient, cheap, environmental technology, and construct the pollution risk assessment model for the AMD treatment. This study provides a scientific basis for the comprehensive treatment and management of AMD in abandoned coal mines in Shanxi.

Public perceptions of potable water reuse, regional growth, and water resources management in the Reno-Sparks area of northern Nevada, USA

The Reno-Sparks area of northern Nevada is one of many communities across the globe where water managers are considering the prospect of potable water reuse. Planned potable reuse is the intentional use of highly treated reclaimed to expand local drinking water supplies. Although water managers and city planners increasingly encourage water recycling, potable water reuse remains an uncommon approach to water management that can face stiff opposition from the local public. This article explores the importance of local identity in shaping public perceptions of potable reuse through a case study of the Reno-Sparks area of northern Nevada. To address this, we conducted a community survey of Reno-Sparks area residents in the spring of 2018 to identify the water issues that mattered most to them and assess willingness to drink reclaimed water. Our mixed-methods analysis explored the degree to which self-identification as an urban, suburban, or rural resident influenced support for potable water reuse and evaluated and compared the stated concerns of the respondents. The results indicate residents throughout the region share concerns about future water supplies, including the impact of population growth on future water availability, yet the self-identified suburban residents were significantly more accepting of potable water reuse when compared to their urban or rural counterparts. In conclusion, we suggest that different conceptions of local identity impact public acceptance of potable reuse in the Reno-Sparks area and, furthermore, these place-based identities may have implications for water management in other communities in the western United States and beyond.

An Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Kottukal Microwatershed in Thiruvananthapuram District, South Kerala

The Kottukal microwatershed is an uplifted sedimentary watershed of recent origin formed due to large scale neo-tectonic activity. The groundwater from this watershed is largely abstracted for both irrigation and local public drinking water supply schemes. The present communication is an attempt to assess the detailed groundwater quality of the unconfined aquifers and the stream water system within the microwatershed. The Hill–Piper diagram indicates majority of groundwater samples are found to be Na–Cl followed by a mixed and Ca–HCO 3 type. The Na–Cl characterization of groundwater in this elevated terrain is not due to primary salinity, but could be attributed to combined effects of irrigation salinity and improper sanitation facilities. The values of total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity in groundwater samples are low as compared to stream water samples, suggesting distinct imprints of hydro-geochemical behaviour. The Wilcox diagram indicates, 90% of water samples falls in the C1–S1 sector depicts its suitability for irrigation. The total coliform and faecal coliform count of >1600 MPN is noted in 88% of water samples. The alkaline trend and high bacteriological contamination points to the prevalence of a non-sterile environment resulted from agronomic practices and poor environmental sanitation facilities within the watershed.

From curiosity to commodity: a review of the evolution of sachet drinking water in West Africa

The private sector continues to play an important role in filling local drinking water supply gaps across the Global South. In West Africa, a perfect storm of rapid population growth, infrastructure mismanagement, and globalization of consumer markets has resulted in the advent of an entire new industry around packaged water, primarily ‘sachet water’ sold in mechanically sealed plastic sleeves. Most local governments and international development agencies have historically perceived sachet water as a passing trend, but it has quickly become a primary drinking water source for the majority of households in many urban areas and continues to spread throughout the region and world. Sachet water is now an important component of regional water security, although with attendant issues related to governance, quality control, environmental pollution, and social justice. This paper reviews the seminal literature on sachet water in West Africa, with particular emphasis on Ghana and Nigeria, where most studies have focused. This review synthesizes governance issues, consumer and industry trends, and the latest on product quality in the literature from 2011 to 2016, with 2010 approximating an inflection point for the modernization of the industry. The ability of many West African nations to achieve universal access to safe drinking water may depend on their willingness to understand and incorporate the sachet water industry into an integrated drinking water platform. WIREs Water 2017, 4:e1206. doi: 10.1002/wat2.1206This article is categorized under: Engineering Water > Planning Water Engineering Water > Sustainable Engineering of Water Human Water > Water Governance

An Integrated Approach to Identify Water Resources for Human Consumption in an Area Affected by High Natural Arsenic Content

This study concerns the occurrence of arsenic in the groundwater system of the Cimino-Vico volcanic area (central Italy), different parts of which are currently widely used for local drinking water supply and for irrigation. The system shows a complex groundwater circulation, including a continuous basal aquifer, discontinuous perched aquifers, groundwater flows at high altitude, and local interactions with rising thermal fluids. Data on arsenic contents in 250 water samples from springs and wells and in 68 samples from rock outcrops were measured and combined with already existing information. Results highlight that arsenic concentrations of groundwater are influenced by type of aquifer, groundwater flow path, arsenic content of the aquifer rocks, and interaction with fluids rising from depth. Waters circulating in the Vico volcanics, one of the prominent rock units of the area, have high concentrations of arsenic, both for the basal and the perched aquifers. A large fraction of the waters associated with this rock unit have arsenic contents higher than 10 μg/L (82 percent for basal, 40 percent for perched). In contrast, waters circulating in the Cimino volcanics have lower arsenic contents: 30 percent of the basal and 10 percent of the perched aquifers have arsenic concentrations greater than 10 μg/L. Through an integrated approach, including leaching tests to investigate the arsenic behavior concerning the water-rock interaction and a geostatistical modeling of data, it has been possible to identify and tentatively quantify suitable water resources that have arsenic content not exceeding the quality standards for human consumption.

Abstract P225: Association Between Perfluoralkyl Acids and Self-Reported Stroke or Cerebral Vascular Accident

PFCs are a class of man-made compounds developed after WWII for use as plasticizers, wetting agents, and as emulsifiers during industrial manufacturing processes. Several lines of research suggest a direct and indirect role for PFCs in stroke and stroke outcome, including: detection in human brain tissue and cerebrospinal fluid and relationships to conditions known to affect stroke, including: homocysteine and blood pressure, thyroid function; immune function, and hypercholesterolemia. The C8 Health Project resulted from a pre-trial settlement of the class action lawsuit filed after PFOA was found to have infiltrated several local drinking water supplies along the mid-Ohio River valley. Final enrollment totaled 69,030 participants. We tested the hypothesis that PFCs were associated with self-reported stroke or cerebral vascular accident. The primary independent variables of interest were the serum concentrations (ng/mL) of 7 different PFCs (PFHxA, PFHS, PFHpA, PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFDA), partitioned into age and gender-specific quintiles. Covariates included in this analyses were: demographic; lifestyle / modifiable risk factors; and medical risk factors. We did not include race as a covariate (≥97% of C8 Health Project participants self-identified as white). The primary dependent variable of interest was self-reported stroke or cerebral vascular accident. In univariate analysis (ANOVA), PFHpA and PFOS levels were higher in participants with Stroke/CVA, but PFNA was lower in participants with Stroke/CVA. Results from logistic regression analysis are presented. For four of seven chemicals included in the analysis, there were statistically significant associations with prevalent Stroke/CVA. PFHxA was associated with increased prevalence of Stroke/CVA, whereas PFHS, PFOS, and PFNA were associated with a decreased prevalence of Stroke/CVA. Thus, results from this preliminary analysis support an associations between PFCs and prevalent Stroke/CVA that warrant further, more rigorous investigation.

Impact of groundwater withdrawals on the interaction of multi-layered aquifers in the Viterbo geothermal area (central Italy)

The impact of groundwater withdrawals on the interaction between multi-layered aquifers with different water qualities in the Viterbo geothermal area (central Italy) was studied. In this area, deep thermal waters are used to supply thermal spas and public pools. A shallow overlying aquifer carries cold and fresh water, used for irrigation and the local drinking-water supply. Starting with a conceptual hydrogeological model, two simplified numerical models were implemented: a steady-state flow model of the entire groundwater system, and a steady-state flow and heat transport model of a representative area, which included complex interactions between the aquifers. The impact of increased withdrawals associated with potential future development of the thermal aquifer must be considered in terms of the water temperature of the existing thermal sources. However, withdrawals from the shallow aquifer might also influence the discharge of thermal sources and quality of the water withdrawn from the shallow wells. The exploitation of the two aquifers is dependent on the hydraulic conductivity and thickness of the intervening aquitard, which maintains the delicate hydrogeological equilibrium. Effective methods to control this equilibrium include monitoring the vertical gradient between the two aquifers and the residual discharge of natural thermal springs.

Occurrence and Sources of Bromate in Chlorinated Tap Drinking Water in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines

Significant levels of potentially carcinogenic bromate were measured in chlorinated tap drinking water in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines, using an optimized ion-chromatographic method. This method can quantify bromate in water down to 4.5 μg l⁻¹ by employing a postcolumn reaction with acidic fuchsin and subsequent spectrophotometric detection. The concentration of bromate in tap drinking water samples collected from 21 locations in cities and municipalities within the 9-month study period ranged from 7 to 138 μg l⁻¹. The average bromate concentration of all tap drinking water samples was 66 μg l⁻¹ (n = 567), almost seven times greater than the current regulatory limit in the country. The levels of bromate in other water types were also determined to identify the sources of bromate found in the distribution lines and to further uncover contaminated sites. The concentration of bromate in water sourced from two rivers and two water treatment plants ranged from 15 to 80 and 12 to 101 μg l⁻¹, respectively. Rainwater did not contribute bromate in rivers but decreased bromate level by dilution. Groundwater and wastewater samples showed bromate concentrations as high as 246 and 342 μg l⁻¹, respectively. Bromate presence in tap drinking water can be linked to pollution in natural water bodies and the practice of using hypochlorite chemicals in addition to gaseous chlorine for water disinfection. This study established the levels, occurrence, and possible sources of bromate in local drinking water supplies.

Lokalna vodooskrba na Krasu

Številni kraški izviri predstavljajo pomembne lokalne vire pitne vode, ki pokrivajo skoraj polovico državnih potreb. Prispevek obravnava način vodooskrbe v preteklosti ter današnje stanje, težave in izzive, s katerimi se soočamo. Kakovost kraških vodnih virov je zadovoljiva, predstavljene raziskave pa prikazujejo, da je stopnja zaščite njihovih prispevnih območij neprimerna. Dodatno so zaradi nesmotrne porabe vode ogrožene razpoložljive količine vodnih zalog. Za ohranjanje našega največjega rezervoarja kakovostne pitne vode morajo načrti za lokalno vodooskrbo temeljiti na ustreznih strokovnih raziskavah, kot jih predstavlja pričujoči članek.

Drinking Water Source Protection in the Tampa Bay Region: A Guide for Homeowners

SL-280, a 3-page illustrated fact sheet by Amy L. Shober, familiarizes homeowners in the Tampa Bay region with the local sources of drinking water, potential pollution sources, and actions that can protect the quality of the local drinking water supply. Includes references. Published by the UF Department of Soil and Water Science, February 2009. Revised June 2009. SL280/SS493: Drinking Water Source Protection in the Tampa Bay Region: A Guide for Homeowners (ufl.edu)

Detection and Characterization of Preferential Flow Paths in the Downstream Area of a Hazardous Landfill

We have used surface-based electrical resistivity tomography to detect and characterize preferential hydraulic pathways in the immediate downstream area of an abandoned, hazardous landfill. The landfill occupies the void left by a former gravel pit and its base is close to the groundwater table and lacking an engineered barrier. As such, this site is remarkably typical of many small- to medium-sized waste deposits throughout the densely populated and heavily industrialized foreland on both sides of the Alpine arc. Outflows of pollutants lastingly contaminated local drinking water supplies and necessitated a partial remediation in the form of a synthetic cover barrier, which is meant to prevent meteoric water from percolating through the waste before reaching the groundwater table. Any future additional isolation of the landfill in the form of lateral barriers thus requires adequate knowledge of potential preferential hydraulic pathways for outflowing contaminants. Our results, inferred from a suite of tomographically inverted surfaced-based electrical resistivity profiles oriented roughly perpendicular to the local hydraulic gradient, indicate that potential contaminant outflows would predominantly occur along an unexploited lateral extension of the original gravel deposit. This finds its expression as a distinct and laterally continuous high-resistivity anomaly in the resistivity tomograms. This interpretation is ground-truthed through a litholog from a nearby well. Since the probed glaciofluvial deposits are largely devoid of mineralogical clay, the geometry of hydraulic and electrical pathways across the pore space of a given lithological unit can be assumed to be identical, which allows for an order-of-magnitude estimation of the overall permeability structure. These estimates indicate that the permeability of the imaged extension of the gravel body is at least two to three orders-of-magnitude higher than that of its finer-grained embedding matrix. This corroborates the preeminent role of the high-resistivity anomaly as a potential preferential flow path.

Water management in a hyperinflationary environment: Case study of Nkayi district in Zimbabwe

This paper discusses the management of local drinking water supplies in Nkayi, a poor rural district in Zimbabwe. The government policy of rural development has evolved a national sector strategy for water and sanitation, implemented through an Integrated Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (IRWSS) programme 1987–2000, with largely donor funding. One aspect of the programme has seen the construction and upgrading of communally-owned boreholes and deep-wells in villages to allow continuous access to sufficient and safe drinking water within a reasonable walking distance. However, due to dwindling state resources and budgetary constraints, since the 1990s, government has been decentralising service provision to local communities’ including water supply. This paper reveals how eight villages in Nkayi have qualitatively managed to innovatively sustain reliable water supply to continue to meet domestic demand despite the challenges of acute water shortages and the burden of rising maintenance costs due to hyperinflation. Despite an unfavourable economic environment, a unique cost-sharing and resource mobilization process by the community, Nkayi has ensured that 87 per cent of water points remain functional.

Lead and Copper in Drinking Water Fountains–Information for Physicians

Lead and copper are potentially toxic metals. The objective of our work was to test the water from the drinking fountains of a large public access office complex in southwest Houston, Texas, for the presence of lead, copper, and microbiologic contamination. The data for the water fountains were compared with what we found in the local municipal drinking water supplies. Samples were collected as the first draw at the beginning of the work week. These samples were acidified to prevent the precipitation of heavy metals and analyzed using United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) approved procedures and quality control. Traces of lead were detected in 37.5% and copper in 100% of the tested water fountains. In two buildings, concentrations in some fountains exceeded the USEPA action level for lead (by up to 12-fold) and for copper (by up to 3.9 fold). One sample was positive for total coliform and Escherichia coli bacteria. Comparison with samples from the local municipal drinking water supplies indicated that both metals and bacteria were the result of secondary contamination at the water fountain sites. This study showed that drinking water fountains can be an unexpected and unappreciated source of intake of metal and bacterial contaminants.

Lead exposure and eclampsia in Britain, 1883–1934

Eclampsia refers to a coma or seizure activity in a pregnant woman with no prior history of such activity. This paper presents a mix of historical and epidemiological evidence consistent with the hypothesis that chronic lead exposure is a predisposing factor for eclampsia. The historical evidence is based on research conducted by British physicians around 1900 showing that the geographic variation in eclampsia across England and Wales was correlated with lead levels in local drinking water supplies. A formal epidemiological analysis based on a data set of English and Welsh counties observed in 1883 corroborates the evidence presented by historical observers. In particular, the statistical results show that the death rate from eclampsia in counties with high-water-lead levels exceeded the death rate in counties with low-water-lead levels by a factor of 2.34 (95% CI: 1.54–3.14).

Formation of Polysulfone Colloids for Adsorption of Natural Organic Foulants

An ever-present problem in the use of commercial membranes for treatment of drinking water is fouling of the membranes by natural organic matter (NOM). This work describes a new approach to elimination or minimization of membrane fouling by NOM. When a 2% solution of polysulfone in NMP and propionic acid is slowly injected into water, approximately 50 nm polysulfone particles are spontaneously formed, and these hydrophobic particles quickly coagulate into approximately 12-microm diameter aggregates; the formed material has a surface area of approximately 100 m(2)/g and an equivalent "pore" size of 25 nm. When 50 mg/L of the new material is equilibrated with a local drinking water supply, virtually all adsorptive fouling of a 20-kDa molecular weight cutoff ultrafiltration membrane is eliminated. Interestingly, although only a very small percentage of the NOM is removed by adsorption on the polysulfone aggregates, it appears that exactly this small NOM component is responsible for nearly all of the membrane fouling. This paper describes the fabrication and characterization of the new polysulfone adsorbent and offers an hypothesis for the formation of the product via spontaneous emulsification and spinodal decomposition.

Copenhagen Metro: groundwater control in sensitive urban areas

The construction of the Copenhagen Metro commenced in 1997 and the tunnel part in inner Copenhagen was finished in 2002. The metro includes an 8 km long bored twin tunnel, 7 deep stations and 10 emergency shafts. These structures are placed deep into the underlying limestone and well below the groundwater table. A temporary groundwater lowering was unavoidable. The tunnels were constructed by use of earth pressure balanced full face Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs). Copenhagen is an over 800 years old city founded by the sea. Numerous historical buildings, palaces and other monuments are key attractions for tourists and for the city population. In many parts of the city these structures are founded in fill layers or alternatively on timber piles or other wooden structures that are sensitive to groundwater lowering. The city authorities do not allow any groundwater lowering in the upper aquifers in inner Copenhagen, due to the past record of groundwater lowering induced deterioration of timber piles and settlement damage to inadequately founded buildings. The city authorities are also concerned with the groundwater quality and with the water quality of the harbour and of city lakes. The Frederiksberg municipality, located within the city of Copenhagen, has a local drinking water supply with a catchment area covering a large part of Copenhagen. The water quality within this catchment area is of special concern to both authorities and the public and is therefore closely monitored. In order to provide efficient and economic groundwater control and meet the requirements of the authorities, it was essential to predict the groundwater lowerings that would inevitably occur. Predictions were based on three-dimensional groundwater modelling carried out for both detailed site-specific models and on a regional scale. As many areas were affected by more than one construction site, the predicted values for each site modelled were read back into the regional model. The output from the regional model then provided draw down levels over the entire Copenhagen area. Areas where the draw down was unacceptable could then be identified. The detailed models for the problem areas could then be re-run incorporating discharge reducing measures, such as increased depth of grouting or recharge of groundwater. Modelling was also carried out to show the effect of the construction processes on the groundwater quality. This was a key issue in many of the applications that were needed to obtain permits for tunnelling and construction works from the authorities. Groundwater control was carried out using a combination of cut-off walls and in sensitive areas of recharge of either extracted water or harbour water. Cut-off walls were constructed using secant pile walls and grouting. The optimal depth of the cut-off walls was determined on the basis of the groundwater modelling. Recharge system configuration was similarly designed on the basis of the modelling results. Recharge was carried out by infiltrating harbour water in areas with salty groundwater. In areas with fresh groundwater, extracted groundwater was reinfiltrated after extensive water treatment. Treatment was done to remove iron oxide and fine limestone particles that would otherwise clog filters. The example shows how groundwater control partly based on groundwater modelling helped to meet the challenges posed by a sensitive urban environment and demanding and competent authorities. (A). Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. For the covering abstract see ITRD E124500.