Crack Load Research Articles

Experimental study on the shear reinforcement contribution to punching shear resistance in flat slabs

AbstractWith the growth of the adoption of flat slabs as a structural system in the usual reinforced concrete projects and the need for openings in slabs for the passage of electrical and hydraulic installations, it is necessary to thoroughly study the influence of such openings on the punching strength of slabs. In this paper, the influence of openings in punching shear resistance was investigated by testing five interior slab‐column connections 2400 mm square and 160 mm thick, with rectangular columns and with and without shear reinforcement. The openings were adjacent to the sides of rectangular supports and had a diameter of 100 mm. The results of cracking and ultimate loads, vertical displacements, and flexural reinforcement strains were analyzed, and the test results were compared with responses predicted from the normative instructions. All slabs with shear reinforcement, with or without openings, failed by crossing the shear reinforcement (Internal Punching Shear). The use of shear reinforcement in slabs with openings showed that the ultimate punching load increased by 25% when compared to the slab without openings and shear reinforcement.

Structural Behavior of Self-Compacting Bendable Mortar Beams reinforced by GFRP Bars under Monotonic Loads

Flexible or bendable concrete is an Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) that exhibits ductile material properties, in contrast to the brittle nature of conventional concrete. The material composition of conventional concrete is modified in order to impart a flexible nature to the material. This research presents the findings of an experimental study examining the flexural response of self-compacting bendable concrete beams reinforced by Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers (GFRP) bars under a symmetrical two-point load. The experimental work comprised the casting of eight reinforced beams. The dimensions of all beams were identical: an overall height of 150 mm, a width of 100 mm, and a total length of 1,000 mm. The beams were classified into three groups based on the type of variables adopted and the type of the strengthening method employed, the percentage of steel fibers (1%, 1.5%, and 2%), and the percentage of Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) (0.2%, 0.3%, and 0.4%) were also considered. The following measurements were taken: the first cracking load, midspan vertical deflections, concrete surface strains, and the ultimate load capacity. Additionally, the crack patterns were recorded and the failure mode was observed, in addition to the mechanical properties of self-mortar bendable concrete (both fresh and hardened). The results indicated that an increase in the PVA ratio from 0.2% to 0.3% and 0.4% resulted in a notable rise in the modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity, by approximately 16% and 40%, respectively, and 0.09% and 2%, respectively. The ductility of the beams increased with the steel fiber ratio due to enhanced flexural and splitting properties, which is a positive outcome. This allows for more caution to be exercised before the beam reaches its limit of stability. Furthermore, the value of deflection at maximum load increases with the increase of steel fiber content due to the increase in load capacity.

Effect of high-strength SCC with and without steel fibres on the shear behaviour of dry joints in PCSBs

The structural behaviour of precast concrete segmental bridges (PCSBs) heavily relies on the strength of the joints between segments. Multi-keyed dry joints are currently the most commonly used solution in these discontinuity zones. Employing high-strength concrete is becoming increasingly common in civil engineering given its higher strength and improved durability. It specifically allows higher prestressing levels in PCSBs. Using self-compacting concrete enhances workability and adding steel fibres improves mechanical properties. The existing scientific literature includes experimental tests to analyse the shear behaviour of castellated dry joints in different concrete types. However, no experimental tests appear specifically for the castellated dry joints made with high-strength self-compacting concrete (HS-SCC) with and without steel fibres. Therefore, this experimental study conducted 31 push-off-type tests to analyse the behaviour and shear capacity of dry joints made of HS-SCC by investigating the influence of adding steel fibres to the concrete mix. The study examined crack patterns, load-displacement behaviour, failure modes and different (cracking, ultimate and residual) loads. The addition of steel fibres improved joints’ shear capacity. However, brittle behaviour was observed after reaching ultimate load when using HS-SCC, even when steel fibres were added to the concrete mix. Finally, the adequacy of existing formulations was analysed. Standard AASHTO proved to be on the unsafe side for the castellated dry joints specimens made of HS-SCC without steel fibres, and provided a good approximation for the specimens with steel fibres.

Study on Flexural Capacity of UHPC-NC Composite Slab with Reinforced Truss in the Normal Section

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) exhibits significantly higher tensile strength compared to normal concrete (NC). In this paper, the application of UHPC to the precast base plate of composite slabs was proposed, leading to the development of a reinforced truss UHPC-NC composite slab. This approach effectively enhanced the crack resistance of the slab. A finite element model (FEM) for the reinforced truss UHPC-NC composite slab was developed based on the ABAQUS (2016) platform, using appropriate material constitutive relationships for UHPC, NC, and steel reinforcement. The validity of the model was verified through comparison with relevant test results. Subsequently, the effects of parameters such as the cross-sectional area of the upper and lower truss chords, the reinforcement ratio of the precast base plate, the strength grade of the UHPC base plate, and the thickness of the UHPC base plate on the flexural capacity of the UHPC-NC composite slab were investigated. Finally, the equations for calculating the flexural capacity of the UHPC-NC composite slab were proposed. It was found that increasing the cross-sectional area of the lower truss chord improved the flexural capacity and stiffness of such slabs to some extent, though ductility was slightly reduced. On the other hand, increasing the upper chord cross-sectional area had limited impact on the flexural performance. Increasing the reinforcement ratio of the longitudinal reinforcement in the precast base plate significantly enhanced the load-bearing capacity and stiffness but similarly reduced ductility. As the UHPC grade of the precast base plate increased, the cracking load, yield load, and ultimate load of the slab also increased. However, when the UHPC grade exceeded C120, the improvement in flexural capacity became less significant. With an increase in thickness of the precast UHPC base plate, cracking, yield, and ultimate loads also rose, but ductility decreased. When the thickness of UHPC exceeded 60 mm, the increase in flexural capacity became modest. The proposed equations for calculating the flexural capacity of the reinforced truss UHPC-NC composite slab in the normal section agreed well with simulation results, providing theoretical and numerical support for the design and analysis of UHPC-NC composite slabs.

Fracture Toughness of Ordinary Plain Concrete Under Three-Point Bending Based on Double-K and Boundary Effect Fracture Models.

Fracture tests are a necessary means to obtain the fracture properties of concrete, which are crucial material parameters for the fracture analysis of concrete structures. This study aims to fill the gap of insufficient test results on the fracture toughness of widely used ordinary C40~C60 concrete. A three-point bending fracture test was conducted on 28 plain concrete and 6 reinforced concrete single-edge notched beam specimens with various depths of prefabricated notches. The results are reported, including the failure pattern, crack initiation load, peak load, and complete load versus crack mouth opening displacement curves. The cracking load showed significant variation due to differences in notch prefabrication and aggregate distribution, while the peak load decreased nonlinearly with an increase in the notch-to-height ratio. The reinforced concrete beams showed a significantly higher peak load than the plain concrete beams, attributed to the restraint of steel reinforcement, but the measured cracking load was comparable. A compliance versus notch-to-height ratio curve was derived for future applications, such as estimating crack length in crack growth rate tests. Finally, fracture toughness was determined based on the double-K fracture model and the boundary effect model. The average fracture toughness value for C50 concrete from this study was 2.0 MPa·m, slightly smaller than that of lower-strength concrete, indicating the strength and ductility dependency of concrete fracture toughness. The fracture toughness calculated from the two models is consistent, and both methods employ a closed-form solution and are practical to use. The derived fracture toughness was insensitive to the discrete parameters in the boundary effect model. The insights gained from this study significantly contribute to our understanding of the fracture toughness properties of ordinary structural concrete, highlighting its potential to shape future studies and applications in the field.

Experimental Study on the Mechanical Properties of Squat RC Shear Walls with Corrosion Along the Base

In corrosive environments containing chloride and sulfate, the corrosion of steel bars is common along the base of squat RC shear walls (SRCSW) due to problems such as construction quality, concrete stress concentration, local defects, and accumulation of water and corrosive media. In this paper, three SRCSWs are designed and constructed and their mechanical properties assessed. One side of each SRCSW was exposed to a corrosive environment for 70 days, while the other side was subject to the same conditions over different corrosion times (i.e., 0 day, 42 days, and 70 days). Then, the corrosion-induced cracking process, the mechanical properties of SRCSWs corroded along the base, the relationship between the mass loss of total steel bars (MLTSB) in the corroded area and the wall mechanical properties, and the relationship between the average width of corrosion-induced cracks (CICs) and the wall mechanical properties were studied through an accelerated corrosion test and a loading failure test. The results indicate that the area of corrosion-induced cracking on SRCSWs increased with the corrosion time, and the cracking area on the different SRCSWs was approximately identical when the SRCSWs were exposed to the same corrosion time. When the degree of corrosion was different, the loading failure characteristics of the SRCSWs were obviously different, but the failure mode always corresponded to shear failure. The load–displacement curves of the SRCSWs with different degrees of corrosion along the base basically coincided and were linear when the loading was in the elastic stage. Compared to SW-1, the peak load of SW-2 decreased by 4.0%, but that of SW-3 increased by 2.7%. Compared to SW-1, the yield loads of SW-2 and SW-3 decreased by 22.4% and 11.8%, respectively. When the MLTSB increased from 13.05% to 16.71%, the crack, yield, and peak loads of the SRCSWs corroded along the base decreased by 8.8%, 22.4%, and 6.8%, respectively. The cracking, yield, and peak loads of the SRCSWs corroded along the base decreased linearly with the increase in MLTSB and the average width of the CICs, and the corresponding fitting relations were established. The results of this study can serve as a reference for the durability design of SRCSWs in corrosive environments.

Various configurations of externally bonded strain-hardening cementitious composite reducing shear failure risk of defected RC beams

This study delves into the efficacy of external strengthening methods in improving the shear behavior of defected reinforced concrete (RC) beams that lack shear stirrups, utilizing both experimental and numerical methodologies. Failure risk of such beams is a potential threat which is mitigated carefully to increase building safety and sustainability to avoid risk of construction failure. Ten RC beams underwent three-point experimental testing to assess the influence of the strengthening scheme and the presence of mechanical anchors. Two beams were designated as control specimens, while eight beams were strengthened with the application of additional strain-hardening cementitious composite (SHCC) layer in various configurations. These configurations encompassed single-sided, two-sided, and strip applications, with the inclusion of mechanical anchors. The study found that employing a single-sided SHCC, incorporating vertically bent bars into the RC beam, is recognized for its efficient alleviation of degradation in shear reinforcement. The incorporation of three SHCC strips to partially reinforce the compromised beams demonstrated a modest impact on the initial stiffness. Nevertheless, noteworthy enhancements of 46% and 42% were observed in both cracking and ultimate loads, respectively. Furthermore, increasing the number of the SHCC strips to four resulted in a more significant improvement in the load–deflection responses. Enhancing the compromised beams by applying four SHCC strips to the beams using bolts offers a feasible alternative to the configuration where SHCC was uniformly attached along the entire defected zone. Moreover, a numerical model was created to simulate the tested beams. The model effectively anticipated the progression of cracks, ultimate capacity, and deflection, indicating excellent agreement with the experimental observations.

Experimental Study on the Flexural Performance of the Corrosion-Affected Simply Supported Prestressed Concrete Box Girder in a High-Speed Railway

Prestressed concrete box girders are commonly employed in the development of high-speed railway bridge constructions. The prestressed strands in the girder may corrode due to long-term chloride erosion, leading to the degradation of its flexural performance. To examine the flexural performance of corrosion-affected simply supported prestressed concrete box girders, eight T-shaped mock-up beams related to the girders used in the construction of high-speed railway bridges were manufactured utilizing similarity theory. Seven of the beams underwent electrochemical accelerated corrosion, and then each beam was subjected to failure under the four-point load test method. Measurements recorded and analyzed in detail during the loading process included the following: crack propagation, crack width at various loads, crack load, ultimate load, deflection, and concrete strain of the mid-span section. The results demonstrate that a corrosion rate of just 8.31% has a considerable impact on the structural integrity of the beams, as evidenced by a pronounced reduction in flexural cracks and a tendency towards reduced reinforcement failure. Furthermore, the corrosive process has a detrimental effect on mid-span deflection, ductility, and ultimate flexural bearing capacity, which could have significant implications for bridge safety. This study provides valuable insights for the assessment of flexural performance and the development of appropriate maintenance strategies for corroded simply supported box girders in high-speed railways.

Enhancing concrete beam performance with PVA fibers, coal ash, and graphene fabric: a comprehensive structural analysis

ABSTRACT This study evaluates the structural performance of Polyvinyl Alcohol Cementitious Composites (PVCC)-layered reinforced concrete beams with coal ash under static loading. Experimental investigations included first crack load, ultimate load, load-deflection behavior, ductility, stiffness, and energy absorption. Results highlight the influence of Polyvinyl Alcohol-(PVA) fiber dosage on structural behavior. The control specimen exhibited an initial crack load of 80kN, with subsequent specimens showing varied crack initiation loads influenced by PVA fiber content. Optimal performance was observed at 1.2% PVA fiber dosage, with higher dosages leading to earlier crack initiation. Ultimate load carrying capacity increased with PVA fiber addition, reaching a peak at 1.2% dosage before slight decreases occurred with higher dosages. Load-deflection behavior demonstrated the superior performance of PVCC layered beams, particularly specimen BP3, attributed to optimal fiber content. Ductility, stiffness, and energy absorption increased with PVA fiber reinforcement, with 1.2% dosage yielding optimal results. Excessive fiber content led to diminishing returns. Energy index analysis revealed superior energy dissipation in specimens with higher PVA fiber content, emphasizing the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in enhancing structural performance. Overall, the study underscores the importance of optimizing PVA fiber dosage to maximize structural resilience and load-bearing capacity in PVCC-layered concrete beams with coal ash.

Experimental and Numerical Research on Fracture Properties of Mass Concrete Under Quasi-Static and Dynamic Loading

The dynamic fracture behavior of mass concrete is crucial to the dynamic analysis and safety evaluation of concrete dams subjected to strong earthquake shocks in the framework of fracture mechanics. In the presented research, cylindrical specimens with a ring of preset cracks were cast by three-graded mass concrete, and direct tension tests were performed with two loading rates considered, i.e., 10−6/s for quasi-static loading and 10−3/s for dynamic loading. The load–crack mouth opening displacement (P-CMOD) curves were obtained, from which the fracture toughness, fracture energy, and characteristic length of the mass concrete were obtained. In this process, the influence of the eccentricity in the tests was compensated by the numerical modeling of the tests. Next, the crack propagation process of the mass concrete was modeled using the extended finite element method. From the test results, it is found that, under quasi-static loading, the crack generally propagates along the interface between the aggregates and the matrix, while, under dynamic loading, more aggregates are fractured. As compared to the case of quasi-static loading, the energy absorption capacity, fracture energy, and fracture toughness increase for dynamic loading, while the characteristic length decreases. Moreover, the numerically predicted P-CMOD curves agree reasonably well with the experimental measurements.

Brick masonry reinforcement with methyl methacrylate injection

Introduction. Structural reinforcement of brick and stone masonry by grouting materials under pressure is an efficient approach to restoring the masonry integrity, and, in some cases, improving its bearing capacity. This paper presents the results of research studies into the strength of a masonry structure reinforced by methyl methacrylate injection. This research is part of a larger project, which was launched in 2004 and continues to date. Due to the high penetrating ability of methyl methacrylate, reinforcement of masonry structures with small crack opening seems highly promising.Aim. Evaluation of the effectiveness of methyl methacrylate injection for masonry reinforcement.Materials and methods. The experimental studies were carried out in two stages. At the first stage, masonry specimens manufactured in the form of columns were subjected to compression tests. At the second stage, methyl methacrylate was injected under pressure into the specimens with formed cracks. The as-reinforced specimens were tested again in order to evaluate their strength increase factor.Results. The distribution of methyl methacrylate throughout masonry when injected under pressure, as well as through individual brick and mortar specimens without pressure, was studied. It is shown that the technology of masonry reinforcement by methyl methacrylate differs significantly from that of concrete consolidaton, where higher pressures contribute to its more even distribution over the concrete body.Conclusions. Injection of methyl methacrylate into masonry with multiple load cracks can increase its loadbearing capacity by at least 1.2 times.The results of research were used in the development of normative documents on reinforcement of masonry structures.

Experimental and numerical investigation on progressive collapse resistance of three-dimensional RC structures

An investigation on progressive collapse for three-dimensional RC structures was presented in this paper, based on a series of experimental tests and numerical analysis. The crack pattern and load–displacement curves were compared and discussed according to three single-story specimens under the loss of corner column and a two-story specimen under the loss of edge column. Experimental results show that flexural action is the main resistance mechanism for specimens whether the removal of corner or edge column. Moreover, the effect of the slab and secondary beam on the loading transfer mechanism was studied based on finite element model with various scenarios established by ABAQUS. The numerical results had a well agreement with the experimental results. FEA results indicated that the phenomenon of uneven distribution of loads can be improved due to the existence of slab and secondary beam. Finally, the corresponding analytical models considering the effect of secondary beam and torsion of primary beam with various scenarios were proposed to predict progressive collapse resistance.

Flexural Behaviour and Environmental Impact of African Fan Palm Reinforced Concrete Beams under Symmetrical Loading Conditions

The paper presents the results of investigation on reinforced beams adopting eco-friendly materials for sustainable concrete. The use of African fan palm is explored to mitigate the environmental impact aimed at reducing carbon emissions associated with the production and use of steel reinforcement. The beams were tested under a four -point loading system with the ends simply supported. The test comprised twenty-three beams that were reinforced with African fan palm bars whilst two beams were reinforced with mild steel bars to serve as control beams. The study investigated the flexural strength and deformation characteristics of the beams under monotonic loading. Two concrete strengths of 15.34N/mm2 or 22.37N/mm2 were adopted and proposed optimal tensile ratios for an under reinforced fan palm section. The parameters considered included the tension bars ratio (ρ), concrete compressive strength, span-to-effective-depth ratio and loading conditions. A linear elastic behaviour of both fan palm and steel reinforced concrete beams was observed to the point of first crack load beyond which the beam stiffness continued to reduce until failure. A comparison of the experimental results with results of theoretical analysis of the beams revealed that a 1.22% increase in the tensile ratio of steel in the control beams increased the cracking moment (Mcr) to 36%, while the fan palm beam of the same size and same concrete strength with a higher tensile ratio of 9.69% exhibited a lower Mcr of 11.86%. This shows a significant effect of reinforcing steel bars on concrete cracking compared to the fan palm. The averages of experimental to theoretical failure loads of fan palm to steel were compared with failure loads of 36.52kN to 20.19kN and 32kN to 19.78kN respectively. These results of the study based on the failure mode, and failure loads, highlights the suitability of using African fan palm as substitute reinforcing material for low rise buildings. Furthermore, the study also proposed minimum and maximum tensile ratio of 0.76% and 5.60% respectively for fan palm reinforced concrete beams based on the Indian Standard and modulus of elasticity of steel.

Experimental study on the mechanical properties of red sandstone with fractures under different loading rates

In order to study the effects of crack inclination angle and loading rate on rock mechanical properties, creep characteristics, and failure characteristics. Taking homogeneous red sandstone with different fracture angles as the research object, uniaxial compression tests and uniaxial compression creep tests were conducted at different loading rates. The results showed that under the same fracture angle, the loading rate was positively correlated with the peak strength, elastic modulus, instantaneous strain, creep strain, and steady-state creep rate of the sample, while negatively correlated with the peak strain. At the same loading rate, the mechanical properties and creep properties of the sample were controlled by the crack inclination angle α. With the increase of α, the peak strength, peak strain, instantaneous strain, creep strain and steady-state creep rate decreased first and then increased, and the elastic modulus increased. On the basis of rock creep testing, it is also important to establish a creep model that conforms to the actual test situation for studying rock creep characteristics. However, many models currently used cannot accurately describe the three stages of rock creep, especially the accelerated creep stage. Therefore, based on Burgers elements, this paper introduces plastic damage bodies based on damage rates and software components based on fractional calculus, A new creep model was obtained and its rationality was verified through experimental results. The results showed that the fit between the model and experimental data was above 0.97, indicating that the model can better describe the three stages of rock creep, especially reflecting the non-linear characteristics of the accelerated creep stage.

A novel semi-explicit numerical algorithm for efficient 3D phase field modelling of quasi-brittle fracture

Phase field models have become an effective tool for predicting complex crack configurations including initiation, propagation, branching, intersecting and merging. However, several computational issues have hindered their utilisation in engineering practice, such as the convergence challenge in implicit algorithms, numerical stability issues in explicit methods and significant computational costs. Aiming to providing a more efficient numerical algorithm, this work integrates the explicit integral operator with the recently developed neighbored element method, for the first time, to solve the coupled governing equations in phase field models. In addition, the damage irreversibility can be ensured automatically, avoiding the need to introduce extra history variable for the maximum driving force in traditional algorithms. Six representative fracture benchmarks with different failure modes are simulated to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, including the multiple cracks in heterogeneous concrete at mesoscale. It is found that this semi-explicit numerical algorithm yields consistent crack profiles and load capacities for all examples to the available experimental data and literature. In particular, the computational cost is significantly reduced when compared to the traditional explicit modelling. Therefore, the presented numerical algorithm is highly attractive and promising for phase-field simulations of complicated 3D solid fractures in structural-level engineering practices.

Experimental investigation on shear behavior of I-shaped concrete beam with Fe-SMA rebars

Vertical prestress loss causes cracking in prestressed box-girder bridge webs. As a new type of prestressed material, iron-based shape-memory alloy (Fe-SMA) rebars can be used as vertically prestressed rebars to compensate for the loss of vertical prestress in box-girder webs. In this study, box-girder webs were simplified into I-shaped beams, and the shear performance of these I-shaped beams with vertical Fe-SMA rebars in the shear span was analyzed to estimate the feasibility of using Fe-SMA rebars. The effects of the activation state, layout spacing, and rebar diameter on the shear performance of the I-beams were explored. The variations in the cracking load, ultimate load, and main tensile strain were systematically investigated. The results indicate a significant transformation from brittle to ductile bending shear failure following Fe-SMA activation. Moreover, the ultimate deflection exhibited a significant increase exceeding a factor of 2. The activation of the Fe-SMA was beneficial for delaying specimen cracking and improving shear strength. Specifically, the shear cracking and ultimate loads increased by 24.21 % and 12.11 %, respectively. Simultaneously, the activation of the Fe-SMA rebar significantly reduced the primary tensile strain within the shear span segment and effectively delayed crack development. The diagonal fracture width of the specimens with the activated Fe-SMA was significantly reduced (67.24 %, 57.14 %, and 52.22 %, respectively) at three different stress settings (400, 450, and 500 kN). Furthermore, a methodology for estimating the shear cracking and bearing capacity of I-beams with vertical Fe-SMA rebars is proposed. The calculated values are in excellent agreement with the experimental data, thereby serving as a valuable reference for future research.

Insights from tensile fracture properties and full-field strain evolution of deep coral reef limestone under dynamic loads

Coral reef limestone (CRL) commonly undergoes dynamic tension when underground structures of island reefs encounter impacts, explosions, or seismic activities. Given the complexity of biological pores, the dynamic tensile fracture characteristics of CRL are poorly understood. Therefore, the dynamic tensile fracture behaviors of deep CRL were systematically observed by Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar tests and digital image techniques. Comparing to traditional rocks, the macro-pores near failure band would significantly change cracking path. The failure patterns are dominated by loading rate. The strongly dependence of dynamic tensile strength and dynamic crack initiation toughness on loading rate suggests the two indices overcome the effect of CRL macro-pores under dynamic impacts. At low loading rates, tensile fractures predominantly follow intergranular cracks, whereas transgranular cracks dominate at higher rates. The fractal dimension of fracture surface decreases with increasing crack propagation velocity, loading rate, and dynamic crack initiation toughness. Due to the unique marine sedimentary environment, the mechanical heterogeneity in multiple scales distinguishes CRL from terrestrial rock materials. The insights into underlying mechanisms of dynamic tension provide support to optimization of blasting scheme and stability assessments for island underground engineering.

Effects of palm oil fuel ash and crumb rubber on mechanical and thermal properties of sustainable engineered cementitious composites

The construction sector using natural sand causes rapid depletion and environmental harm, including erosion, biodiversity loss, and aquatic habitat destruction. To address these challenges and advance sustainability, this study systematically investigated the behaviour of engineered cementitious composites (ECC) incorporating 10–30 % ground palm oil fuel ash (GPOFA) and crumb rubber (CR) as a fine aggregate substitution. Two different sizes of GPOFA, P600 (in the range of 300 μm–600 μm) and P300 (less than 300 μm), were utilized to substitute the fine aggregate in the mix. Dry density, workability, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and strain, compressive strength, flexural strength, and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) were investigated. Furthermore, the microstructures and mineralogical compositions of the selected ECC samples were also examined. The results indicate that increasing GPOFA and CR content reduced ECC's flowability and density. Incorporating GPOFA reduced the compressive strength by 23 % for P600, 12 % for P300, and 74 % for CR, for 30 % substitution at 28 days. Both substitutions reduced the modulus of elasticity and UPV of ECC due to reduced packing efficiency and increased porosity. Increasing GPOFA improved the first cracking load slightly but decreased ultimate flexural strength, whereas CR significantly reduced both. In addition, tensile strain and strength dropped more significantly for ECC with CR compared to ECC with GPOFA. ECC with CR recorded the highest shrinkage and the lowest thermal conductivity (0.66W/mK). Overall, P600 outperformed P300, and CR showed the lowest performance in ECC across all parameters studied. This study highlights that partial replacement of silica sand with GPOFA could produce greener ECC with acceptable mechanical properties, while CR effectively reduces the thermal conductivity of ECC. Integrating GPOFA and CR adds significant value to these wastes while simultaneously providing a sustainable solution for waste disposal.

Strengthening of reinforced concrete beams with insufficient lapped splice length of reinforcing bars

The insufficient lapped splice length of reinforcing bars due to the design or construction errors reduces both the flexural strength and ductility of Reinforced Concrete (RC) beams. The defected RC beams need to be strengthened to allow structures to be ductile and robust in their design life. This paper reports experimental and numerical investigations into the flexural behavior of RC beams having insufficient lapped splice length of reinforcing bars strengthened by various techniques. Eleven RC beams have been tested to examine the effects of strengthening techniques and anchorage lengths of the strengthening materials on the performance of the beams. The test program and results are described on RC beam specimens strengthened by using the externally bonded stainless-steel (EBSS) sheets, the near surface mounted (NSM) steel bars, and the external prestressing system. Finite Element (FE) models are developed using ABAQUS to simulate the responses of strengthened RC beams in which the lapped splice length of reinforcement is inadequate. A parametric study is conducted using the validated FE models to examine the effects of the length of EBSS sheets and steel anchor bolts at the ends on structural behavior. An analytical model is proposed for calculating the ultimate capacity of beams strengthened by NSM technique. Experimental results reveal that the proposed strengthening methods can significantly improve both the cracking and ultimate loads of the defected beams. The application of the external prestressing method results in the largest increase in the cracking and ultimate loads of the defected beams calculated as 222 % and 213 %, respectively compared to the defected control beam. The ultimate load of the defected beam strengthened with EBSS sheet, NSM steel bars, and prestressing system with a length of 100D increases by 50 %, 109 %, and 182 %, respectively. It is shown that the developed FE models can accurately predict the behavior of strengthened beams having inadequate lapped splice length of reinforcing bars. The parametric study demonstrates that strengthening the entire clear span of the beam B-ESS-65D with EBSS sheet increases its ultimate load by 207 %. The failure mode of strengthened beams is ductile bending without debonding. The proposed analytical model is shown to yield accurate calculations of the ultimate loads of strengthened RC beams.

Structural performance of hybrid reinforced concrete beams containing polyvinyl alcohol fibers under thermal loads

This study focused on the efficiency of concrete beams containing polyvinyl alcohol fibers (PVA) under thermal loads. The eighteen concrete beams were reinforced with hybrid bars or a combination of GFRP bars and steel reinforcement bars (hybrid scheme). The main experimental variables were the level of temperature (25o, 300o, and 600o C), PVA fiber volume (0 %, 0.50 %, and 1.0 %), and the flexural reinforcement bars. The experimental test results are discussed in terms of the first crack load, flexural capacity, and load-deflection curves. Moreover, the initial and post-crack stiffness, ductility factor, and failure modes are discussed. The test results demonstrated a significant increase in the capacity of PVA concrete beams reinforced with hybrid reinforcement bars. At a temperature of 300o C, the inclusion of 0.50 % and 1.0 % PVA ratios improved the flexural capacities by 11 % and 24 %, respectively. Furthermore, the addition of PVA fibers enhanced the toughness by 34 % and 67 %, respectively, when compared to normal concrete beams. The results also demonstrate that using PVA fibers prevents the spalling of concrete beams after exposure to elevated temperatures. At 600 °C, beams containing 0.50 % and 1.0 % PVA fibers exhibited flexural capacities that were 9 % and 6 % higher, respectively, compared to normal concrete beams. Additionally, the inclusion of PVA fibers increased the toughness by 27 % and 21 % for the respective fiber ratios. Finally, a nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) simulation was performed to verify the experimental test results and supplement experiments by predicting the results that are difficult to accomplish through experiments. With an average ratio of 1.02 between experimental and NLFEA ultimate capacity, the numerical results were an exact match of the patterns observed in the experimental results.