Livestock Vehicles Research Articles

Estimating the impact of low temperature on African swine fever virus transmission through contaminated environments.

African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) is the cause of an infectious disease in pigs, which is difficult to control. Long viability of ASFV has been shown for several contaminated materials, especially under low temperature. Therefore, when pigs are exposed to a contaminated environment, new infections could occur without the presence of infectious individuals. For example, a contaminated, poorly washed, empty livestock vehicle poses a risk to the next load of pigs. A quantitative stochastic environmental transmission model was applied to simulate the change in environmental contamination levels over time and calculate the epidemic parameters through exposure-based estimation. Due to the lack of experimental data on environmental transmission at low temperatures, we performed a non-linear fit of the decay rate parameter with temperature based on a literature review. Eventually, 16 scenarios were constructed for different temperature (at 20°C, 10°C, 0°C, or -10°C) and duration of empty periods (1, 3, 5, or 7 days) after the environment had been contaminated. We quantified the variation in the contamination level of the environment over time and the probability of newly added recipients getting infected when exposed to the environment after the empty period. As a result, the transmission rate parameter for ASFV in pigs was estimated to be 1.53 (0.90, 2.45) day-1, the decay rate parameter to be 1.02 (0.73, 1.47) day-1 (at 21°C), and the excretion rate parameter to be 2.70 (2.51, 3.02) day-1. Without washing and disinfecting, the environment required 9, 14, 24, 54 days to reach a low probability of causing at least one new case (<0.005) at 20°C, 10°C, 0°C, -10°C, respectively. In addition, the method proposed in this paper enables assessment of the effect of washing and disinfecting on ASFV environmental transmission. We conducted this study to better understand how the viability of ASFV at different temperatures could affect the infectivity in environmental transmission and to improve risk assessment and disease control strategies.

SWOT analysis of risk factors associated with introduction of African Swine Fever through vehicles returning after export of pigs.

Denmark is a major pig exporter and applies a high level of biosecurity, with washing and disinfecting stations for returning livestock vehicles. The introduction of African Swine Fever (ASF) would have significant economic consequences related to loss of export of live pigs and products thereof. In this study, we focused on the role of empty livestock vehicles returning after exports of pigs for the introduction of ASF. Initially, the current components and measures related to export of livestock were described. Next, analyses of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) were conducted, covering the components and measures identified. Then, export of pigs was described either through assembly centers or directly from farms. Washing and disinfection, as required and undertaken at the designated stations, constitutes the most important among all risk-reducing measures identified. Recommendations are to: (1) ensure the quality of washing and disinfection through staff training; (2) find new, safe, and more efficient disinfectants; (3) ensure the required temperature, and therefore effect, of the disinfectant and water. It was impossible to assess, the influence of export through assembly centers compared to direct transport. However, through SWOT analyses we identified the strengths and weaknesses of the two pathways. Moreover, components/measures with risks of unknown sizes are also discussed, such as vehicles undertaking cabotage and the current vehicle quarantine periods.

Big data-based risk assessment of poultry farms during the 2020/2021 highly pathogenic avian influenza epidemic in Korea.

Outbreaks of H5-type highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in poultry have been reported in various parts of the world. To respond to these continuous threats, numerous surveillance programs have been applied to poultry raising facilities as well as wild birds. In Korea, a surveillance program was developed aimed at providing a preemptive response to possible outbreaks at poultry farms. The purpose of this study is to comprehensively present the risks of HPAI evaluated by this program in relation to actual outbreak farms during the epidemic of 2020/2021. A deep learning-based risk assessment program was trained based on the pattern of livestock vehicles visiting poultry farms and HPAI outbreaks to calculate the risk of HPAI for farms linked by the movement of livestock vehicles (such farms are termed “epidemiologically linked farms”). A total of 7,984 risk assessments were conducted, and the results were categorized into four groups. The proportion of the highest risk level was greater in duck farms (13.6%) than in chicken farms (8.8%). Among the duck farms, the proportion of the highest risk level was much greater in farms where breeder ducks were raised (accounting for 26.4% of the risk) than in farms where ducks were raised to obtain meat (12.8% of the risk). A higher risk level was also found in cases where the species of the outbreak farm and epidemiologically linked farms were the same (proportion of the highest risk level = 13.2%) compared to that when the species between the two farms were different (7.9%). The overall proportion of farms with HPAI outbreaks among epidemiologically linked farms (attack rate, AR) was 1.7% as HPAI was confirmed on 67 of the 3,883 epidemiologically linked farms. The AR was highest for breeder ducks (15.3%) among duck farms and laying hens (4.8%) among chicken farms. The AR of the pairs where livestock vehicles entered the inner farm area was 1.3 times (95% confidence interval: 1.4–2.9) higher than that of all pairs. With the risk information provided, customized preventive measures can be implemented for each epidemiologically linked farm. The use of this risk assessment program would be a good example of information-based surveillance and support decision-making for controlling animal diseases.

Surveillance of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza on Poultry Farms in Tracking Livestock Vehicles in the Republic of Korea

Approaches in Poultry, Dairy & Veterinary Sciences Surveillance of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza on Poultry Farms in Tracking Livestock Vehicles in the Republic of Korea Hachung Yoon1*, Ilseob Lee1, Giphil Cho2, Hyunmin Kim2 and Eunesub Lee1 1Veterinary Epidemiology Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Republic of Korea 2Finance Fishery Manufacture Industrial Mathematics Center on Big Data, Pusan National University, Republic of Korea *Corresponding author: Hachung Yoon, Veterinary Epidemiology Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Gyeongsangbuk-do, 39660 Republic of Korea Submission: November 02, 2021;Published: November 19, 2021 DOI: 10.31031/APDV.2021.08.000694 ISSN: 2576-9162 Volume8 Issue4

A new method for sampling African swine fever virus genome and its inactivation in environmental samples

African swine fever (ASF) is currently the most dangerous disease for the global pig industry, causing huge economic losses, due to the lack of effective vaccine or treatment. Only the early detection of ASF virus (ASFV) and proper biosecurity measures are effective to reduce the viral expansion. One of the most widely recognized risks as regards the introduction ASFV into a country is infected animals and contaminated livestock vehicles. In order to improve ASF surveillance, we have assessed the capacity for the detection and inactivation of ASFV genome by using Dry-Sponges (3 M) pre-hydrated with a new surfactant liquid. We sampled different surfaces in ASFV-contaminated facilities, including animal skins, and the results were compared to those obtained using a traditional sampling method. The surfactant liquid successfully inactivated the virus, while ASFV DNA was well preserved for the detection. This is an effective method to systematically recover ASFV DNA from different surfaces and skin, which has a key applied relevance in surveillance of vehicles transporting live animals and greatly improves animal welfare. This method provides an important basis for the detection of ASFV genome that can be assessed without the biosafety requirements of a BSL-3 laboratory at least in ASF-affected countries, which may substantially speed up the early detection of the pathogen.

Long-Distance Transport of Finisher Pigs in the Iberian Peninsula: Effects of Season on Thermal and Enthalpy Conditions, Welfare Indicators and Meat pH.

Simple SummaryLong-distance transport in the global swine industry is more the rule than the exception. We tested the impact on the rates of temperature change and air enthalpy on the stress response and muscle pH in pigs subjected to long-distance travel from Spain to Portugal performed in the summer and winter. We found that winter journeys are more adverse for the animals because during the journey, abrupt variations in rates of temperature change and air enthalpy caused a marked physiological stress response and effects on the meat pH after 45 min. These results indicate the need to develop new environmental control strategies that mitigate abrupt temperature changes during travel to attenuate the biological cost of such long-distance transport on the animals.Current legislation in the European Union places limits on live pig transport according to outside temperature, but less is known about the effects of sudden changes in the thermal microenvironment in trailers, particularly during long-distance transport. In this study, we measured the temperature and relative humidity inside livestock vehicles carrying 1920 Spanish finisher pigs (live weight 100 kg and 240 animals per journey) during eight long-distance (>15 h) commercial journeys to slaughter from northern Spain to Portugal in the summer and winter. Here, we report the rate of change in the air temperature (°C × min−1) and air enthalpies in the transport vehicle (kg water kg dry air-1). At sticking, blood samples were taken for to measure cortisol, glucose, and creatine kinase (CK) as stress response indicators, and the meat pH after 45 min and the pH after 24 h were also determined. The rate of change in the air temperature and enthalpy was higher inside the livestock vehicle during the winter months and was positively related with higher cortisol and glucose levels and lower pH after 45 min (p < 0.05). It is proposed that the rate of temperature change and air enthalpy represent useful integrated indices of thermal stress for pigs during transport.

Region classification based on livestock vehicle movement data by community detection method

The purpose of this study is to obtain data on the zones formed by the movement of livestock vehicles and to determine if such areas can be used to establish quarantine activities and quarantine policies for livestock epidemics. For this purpose, this study used mobile data on poultry-related livestock vehicles generated in 2019. InfoMap, a community detection method, was used for regional classification, and the results of the analysis were visualized on a map using GIS. The study results confirmed that the zone of the administrative unit can be classified based on the movement of livestock vehicles. In addition, the zones created by the vehicle movement could be seen to change depending on the purpose and timing of the operation of livestock vehicles. Some areas form relatively stable zones, such as Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do, while others change depending on the situation, such as Chungcheong-do, Gyeonggi-do, and Gangwon-do. Further, the zones derived for poultry differed from those derived for cattle and pigs in previous studies.

Evaluation of Efficiency of Livestock Vehicle Disinfection Systems Using Water-Sensitive Paper

Evaluation of Efficiency of Livestock Vehicle Disinfection Systems Using Water-Sensitive Paper

Movement-Based Biosecurity Zones for Control of Highly Infectious Animal Diseases: Application of Community Detection Analysis to a Livestock Vehicle Movement Network

Zoning is crucial for controlling animal infectious diseases and movement plays a major role in disease transmission. However, movement-based zoning has received little research attention. This study aimed to identify biosecurity zones divided by administrative unit, based on communities detected in movement network. We used vehicle entry data from November 2013 to January 2017. We split the data to analyze changes in networks over time and seasons (3 summer and 4 winter). The HN algorithm for mega-scale networks was used to detect communities. We identified biosecurity zones based on the geographical concentration of facilities belonging to the same communities. Jenks Natural Breaks Method was used to determine whether facilities were agglomerated. The zone classifications derived for seven seasons were overlaid to identify an integrated zone classification. The number of significant communities declined from 10 to 7 over time, from which we inferred that separated communities tended to aggregate. Therefore, biosecurity zones that were separate in the past merged and the number of zones decreased. From the overlay, seven biosecurity zones were derived. These zones are different from the conventional control zones, which do not consider movement. Therefore, these biosecurity zones can be used as an alternative control zone to complement existing zoning systems in Korea.

Cross-Border Transmission of Salmonella Choleraesuis var. Kunzendorf in European Pigs and Wild Boar: Infection, Genetics, and Evolution

Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype Choleraesuis is a swine adapted serovar. S. Choleraesuis variant Kunzendorf is responsible for the majority of outbreaks among pigs. S. Choleraesuis is rare in Europe, although there have been serious outbreaks in pigs including two outbreaks in Denmark in 1999–2000 and 2012–2013. Here, we elucidate the epidemiology, possible transmission routes and sources, and clonality of European S. Choleraesuis isolates including the Danish outbreak isolates. A total of 102 S. Choleraesuis isolates from different European countries and the United States, covering available isolates from the last two decades were selected for whole genome sequencing. We applied a temporally structured sequence analysis within a Bayesian framework to reconstruct a temporal and spatial phylogenetic tree. MLST type, resistance genes, plasmid replicons, and accessory genes were identified using bioinformatics tools. Fifty-eight isolates including 11 out of 12 strains from wild boars were pan-susceptible. The remaining isolates carried multiple resistance genes. Eleven different plasmid replicons in eight plasmids were determined among the isolates. Accessory genes were associated to the identified resistance genes and plasmids. The European S. Choleraesuis was estimated to have emerged in ∼1837 (95% credible interval, 1733–1983) with the mutation rate of 1.02 SNPs/genome/year. The isolates were clustered according to countries and neighbor countries. There were transmission events between strains from the United States and European countries. Wild boar and pig isolates were genetically linked suggesting cross-border transmission and transmission due to a wildlife reservoir. The phylogenetic tree shows that multiple introductions were responsible for the outbreak of 2012–2013 in Denmark, and suggests that poorly disinfected vehicles crossing the border into Denmark were potentially the source of the outbreak. Low levels of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) differences (0–4 SNPs) can be observed between clonal strains isolated from different organs of the same animal. Proper disinfection of livestock vehicles and improved quality control of livestock feed could help to prevent future spread of S. Choleraesuis or other more serious infectious diseases such as African swine fever (ASF) in the European pig production system.

Animal Infectious Disease Preventive Zone Based on Livestock Vehicle Movement Network

Animal Infectious Disease Preventive Zone Based on Livestock Vehicle Movement Network

Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Gross Pulmonary Lesions in Slaughtered Pigs in Smallholder and Commercial Farms in Two Provinces in the Philippines.

A cross-sectional study of lungs from 1,887 randomly selected pigs from 471 farms from two provinces in the Philippines was carried out to estimate the prevalence of gross pathological lesions, identify potential risk factors and spatial clustering associated with high lung or pleurisy score farms. Lungs from pigs were scored at slaughter. Interviews with the farm managers were conducted to collect information about farm management and biosecurity practices. Of lungs examined, 48% had a lung score above 6 (maximum was 55) and 22% showed pleurisy. When data were aggregated at the farm level, commercial farms were at higher risk of being high lung score farms and high pleurisy farms compared to smallholder farms (P < 0.01). Variables that were associated with an increased risk of a farm being a high lung score farm included the presence of a market pen on the farm, not vaccinating against hog cholera and the presence of another piggery within 500 m. Practicing “feedback” (feeding pig manure, viscera or aborted material to pigs), presence of another piggery within 500 m, and allowing commercial livestock vehicles on farm were all associated with an increased risk of being a high pleurisy farm. Spatial analyses revealed a primary 9.6 km-radius cluster of 39 farms with high lung and pleurisy scores in the southeast of Bulacan province. High lung and pleurisy score farms could be targeted to improve on-farm disease control programs to reduce the risk of respiratory diseases. Clusters of high scoring farms could be prioritized for further investigations or for coordinating intervention efforts.

Development of mathematical model on regionalization using records of livestock related vehicles for control strategy of highly pathogenic avian influenza

In this paper, a mathematical model of regionalization based on graph theory to investigate the patterns induced by movements of livestock vehicles in cities under outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is proposed. We then compare the results of simulation from the regionalization model to actual HPAI outbreaks in 2016/2017 to evaluate the validity of the model. Specifically, we (1) configured a complex network structure with analytic tools and properties in graph theory to abstract the paths among farms and livestock facilities; (2) employed statistical methods to estimate the possibility of propagation between two clusters; (3) applied the developed method to an actual HPAI outbreak in Korea in 2016 and conducted a simulation to determine if the proposed modeling for regionalization is an effective prediction measure. The clustered regions proposed by the simulation correctly reflected the regional clustering of actual cases, while simultaneously contain the cities exposed to potential damage when separated. Based on these findings, we conclude that our proposed regionalization model is suitable for making policy judgments to establish a preemptive biosecurity system.

A Study on the Android Based Livestock Vehicle Management System

In domestic livestock industry, economic damages of livestock farmhouses have been increased because the livestock mortality rate grows due to the spread of infectious animal diseases. The main cause of animal disease spread is a lack of systems to manage livestock vehicles transporting livestock or feed etc. This paper proposes a livestock vehicle management system based on Android for solving such a problem. The proposed system could prevent the spread of animal diseases in advance by collecting and analyzing the moving routes and access information of livestock-related vehicles. It could monitor moving routes of the contamination-suspected vehicles that visited a farm where the animal disease broke out. It is expected to prevent the livestock disease spread in advance through prompt initial prevention such as controlling the movement of vehicles by systematically collecting and managing information on vehicles accessing to livestock farmhouses through this system.

A computational analysis of a fully-stocked dual-mode ventilated livestock vehicle during ferry transportation

Concerns relating to animal transport in general, and specifically to the thermal conditions to which animals are exposed, have led to the development and implementation of regulations, legislations and codes of practice in a number of countries seeking to impose limits on journey times, stocking densities and thermal conditions inside the transport space of vehicles. In the current study, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to analyse the influence of a wind-free environment, such as that presented when the vehicle is transported on the car-deck of a RO–RO ferry, on the ventilated performance of livestock transport vehicle. The livestock transporter under investigation had two decks, the top deck of which was naturally ventilated container and its lower deck was mechanically ventilated container. Using CFD the level of environmental heterogeneity was studied in both the mechanically and naturally ventilated decks. It was found that the naturally ventilated container was hotter and more humid than the mechanically ventilated container. However, the environmental variables were much more evenly distributed in the naturally ventilated container.

Effects of a long distance transport and subsequent recovery in recently weaned crossbred beef calves in Southern Chile

In Chile, prolonged transport of cattle is an important issue due to geographical conditions. This study describes the variation of body weight and some blood constituents related to stress response during one long distance transport (63h) of recently weaned calves for fattening in the Chilean Patagonia. Results concerning blood variables related to stress showed that the whole process of rounding up, weaning and transport was stressful for the calves and that animal welfare was impaired. Cortisol values were significantly lower after unloading (1.0±0.4μg/dl), as compared to before loading (1.5±0.4μg/dl). The significant body weight loss from before loading (240±26.9kg) to after unloading (210±24.2kg), and the long recovery time, adds economic losses to the producers at destiny. As transport period cannot be shortened due to the typical Chilean geography in the Patagonian region and the scarcity of proper routes, it is recommended that conditions of transported calves should be improved by using specialized livestock vehicles that can provide more comfort, as well as access to water and food during the journey.

Livestock Vehicle Accidents in Spain: Causes, Consequences, and Effects on Animal Welfare

Livestock vehicle accidents are rare but involve significant economic, human, and nonhuman farm animal losses. This study obtained information on the characteristics of accidents, the animals involved, and injuries to humans from newspaper reports about livestock vehicle accidents in Spain from January 2000 to December 2008. Most accidents involved pig transport (57%), followed by bovine (30%), poultry (8%), and sheep (5%). Driver mortality was not high (6%), and most accidents (76%) involved only the livestock vehicle, which often was overturned (64%) on a straight road transect (51%). Multivariate analysis of the data suggests 2 types of accidents, depending on the species transported. In the first cluster, 95.3% of the cases involved pig transport with articulated vehicles (60.5%). In the second cluster, 94.4% of the accidents involved small vehicles used for cattle transport (44.4%). The results of this study indicate that the characteristics of livestock vehicle accidents vary according to species. One of the main causes of accidents appears to be driver fatigue, which may be due to several factors such as intense workdays, poorly designed route plans, or high levels of pressure from companies.

Physiological responses of young cross‐bred calves immediately after long‐haul road transportation and after one week of habituation

We investigated 10 suckling cross-bred calves (Japanese Black (Wagyu) x Holstein) and collected data on the physiological stress responses of the young calves to long-haul road transportation. All calves were male and 21-47 days of age. The calves were obtained at a livestock market and were transported from the market to the university in a commercial livestock vehicle. The total haul distance and time were 306.9 km and 7 h, respectively. The calves were deprived of food and water during transportation. Blood samples, electrocardiograms, and rectal temperatures were collected immediately after transportation and after one week of habituation at the university. Serum pH was significantly lower (P < 0.01), while serum triiodothyronine, aspartate aminotransferase, non-esterified fatty acids (all P < 0.05), and heart rate (P < 0.01) were significantly higher immediately after transportation. The concentrations of blood lactic acid (P = 0.08) and serum alanine aminotransferase (P = 0.06) tended to be higher after transportation. These physiological responses suggest that the stress caused by long-haul transportation causes significant effects on liver function in young calves.

Compliance rate of livestock vehicles with welfare standards, and behavior of feeder cattle at loading ramp

ABSTRACTThe objective of the present study was to assess cattle welfare during transportation. Vehicle inspection and observation of cattle behavior during loading operations were conducted at two major livestock markets (T and M) in Japan. Market T provided young feeder cattle (Wagyu and cross‐bred aged 6.8–9.0 months) mainly for regions farther than 1500 km. Market M provided young cattle (Wagyu aged 6.6–11.2 month) and calves (crossbred and Holstein aged 0.7–1.5 month) for nearby regions within 500 km. Market T had loading platforms 1.0 m high, whereas market M had partial allocation of platforms and forced most transporters to load cattle from the ground. Vehicles were inspected according to the welfare standards for beef cattle of the RSPCA. Number of vehicles inspected was 36 and 31 in markets T and M, respectively. Cattle hesitations (kneeling down, slipping, balking, backing down, turning around, jumping and eliminating) were observed at the loading ramp. Vehicles inspected at the markets complied with most requirements of the welfare standards, but non‐compliance was found in two requirements: in market M, 71.0% of vehicles had the loading ramp at a &gt;20% incline, whereas 17.1% of vehicles did in market T (P &lt; 0.001). Slope of the loading ramp was steeper in market M than in market T (33.9 ± 17.3% vs. 14.9 ± 8.9%, P &lt; 0.001). Market M had higher proportion of vehicles that did not comply with the requirement ‘Both loading ramps and tail boards must be appropriately designed and covered with litter, to prevent animals from falling off or slipping’ compared with market T (83.9% vs. 17.1%, P &lt; 0.001). Higher frequencies were observed in two kinds of hesitating behavior in market M than in market T (both P &lt; 0.01): mean frequencies (times/head) of slipping and balking were 1.3 ± 1.2 and 2.0 ± 1.8 in market M, and 0.2 ± 0.2 and 0.7 ± 0.5 in market T, respectively. Steeper loading ramp was correlated with higher frequencies of kneeling down (r = 0.53), slipping (r = 0.59), balking (r = 0.45) and backing down (r = 0.42) (all P &lt; 0.05).

Effect of driver behaviour, driving events and road type on the stability and resting behaviour of sheep in transit

AbstractThe aim of this project was to examine the relationships between driver behaviour and driving events during a journey and the behavioural responses of sheep to these events. Driving style can have a major influence on the welfare of the animals by affecting the risk of injury and by disturbing the ability of the sheep to rest. Two drivers each drove groups of 10 sheep in a 5·5-tonne, single-deck, non-articulated livestock vehicle on five 7-h road journeys consisting of minor roads, main single carriageways and a motorway. The driver, the driver’s view through the windscreen, the speedometer and the sheep were video recorded. Differences in driving style were identified as differences in vehicle speed, rapid braking and the number of corners taken with high cornering g-force. Differences in driving style had a slight effect on the frequency of losses of balance by the sheep and a more significant effect on the degree of disturbance to the sheep and on their ability to rest during the journey. Losses of balance were common, but falls were rare. About 80% of the losses of balance could have been caused by driving events, such as acceleration, braking, stopping, cornering, gear changes and uneven road surfaces. Only about 22% of driving events were followed by a loss of balance. It is likely that driving events were also responsible for many interruptions to both lying behaviour and rumination. Clear benefits of motorway driving compared with single carriageway driving were fewer losses of balance, more lying down, more rumination and fewer disturbances amongst the sheep. This study provides evidence that would be useful for driver training and education to promote careful driving as a means of ensuring the welfare of animals in-transit. The quality of the journey experienced by sheep during transport is dependent upon a number of factors that can be influenced by the driver of the vehicle.