Livelihood Interventions Research Articles

Discourses of Poverty: The Narratives of the Poor in Samar

The study aimed at exploring, through the view of the future for themselves and their children, the perceptions of the poor about the temporal dimensions of poverty. The study adopted a discursive perspective, to illustrate the hopes, dreams and expectations of the poor regarding their future and, ultimately, how they view their status and how the LGU officials would address the different faces and current status of poverty in their respective locality. The researchers used Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). The following are the themes obtained from the responses of the participants: limited knowledge and lower health status, lack of ambition and motivation to improve the situation, inadequate basic needs like food due to large family size, and poverty are transmitted to the next generation. Eradicating poverty is a challenge that sees no means of receding. LGUs do whatever they can to improve people’s lives. Despite those programs and initiatives of the local government units, there are still municipalities in Samar that are experiencing poverty. The poorest of the poor in Samar suffer from a lack of jobs in rural areas, low motivation to pursue education, and limited resources for large families. This has led to a widening gap between the haves and have-nots. Add to that frequent natural disasters being experienced in Samar at least fifteen typhoons in a year which takes away what little the poor have. The fundamental solution for reducing poverty is to tackle poverty and to pursue equity in income, and education, provide more livelihood programs or interventions, and social participation. Community projects that focus on the restoration and development of social networks and social cohesion and the improvement of the social, communication, and coping skills of the deprived, should be encouraged.

Outcomes of integrating livelihood into mental health and psychosocial support program among survivors of torture: A mixed-method study from western Nepal.

From 1996 to 2006, Nepal experienced a decade-long armed conflict that adversely impacted survivors of torture. The conflict posed threats to various facets of their lives, such as men-tal health, socio-economic status, human rights, and the process of reintegration into their original communities. This study was done with the survivors of torture from the armed conflict. This study aims to generate evidence on the impact of livelihood support (supporting individuals with earning their livelihood through business development, farming/animal husbandry and mi-cro-entrepreneurship) upon mental health and psychosocial wellbeing as well as social empower-ment of survivors of torture. In total, 44 out of 46 torture survivors reported improvement in their mental health and psychosocial well-being after the livelihood intervention was instituted. Significant reduction in the severity of symptoms of depression (21.7% to 2.3%), anxiety (15.2% to 6.8%), and post-traumatic stress disorder (44.4% to 4.5%) was observed with medium to high effect size. Similarly, improvement in social relationship, economic status, and autonomy (increase in self-confidence and motivation) were noticed post-intervention. Our study concludes that the livelihood intervention has significantly contributed to economic uplift, improved mental health, psychosocial well-being, social empowerment and quality of life among the survivors of torture. The data provide preliminary evidence of positive outcomes from integrating a livelihood program into an MHPSS (Mental Health and Psychosocial Support) program. Although the lack of a control group prevents us from isolating the specific impacts of the livelihood program, our qualitative data indicate that the intervention is well-received, culturally rel-evant, and promising. The study has yielded certain recommendations for further research.

Agro-Pastoral Youth Participation in Livelihood Activities, Development Programs and Interventions in East and West Hararghe Zones of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

This study was conducted to identify the status and determinants of male and female youth participation in selected livelihood activities, development programs and interventions in agro-pastoral areas of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional research design and mixed methods research approach were employed. A multi-stage random sampling strategy was followed to select four agro-pastoral Woredas (A ‘Woreda’ is an administrative unit equivalent to a District), 12 Kebeles (A ‘Kebele’ is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia. A Woreda/District consists of several Kebeles) and 398 youth aged 15–29 years for a face-to-face interview. Data were analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics and an econometric model (Logistic regression) estimation. We found that whereas male youth had better access to land, participation in extension/advisory services and Farmers’ Training Centers (FTCs), agricultural training, and NGOs, female youth had better participation in non-/off-farm livelihood activities and Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Our findings indicated that lack of access to financial resources, limited access to land, poor extension and rural advisory services, limited skills development programs and mentorship were key factors affecting youth participation. Other factors include: targeting criteria, discrimination (e.g. on the basis of gender, social structure), cumbersome organizational procedures and requirements, limited availability and capacity of supporting organizations, poor infrastructural developments, mismatch between needs and services provided, conflict, and climate-induced shocks and uncertainties. To overcome these challenges, local and regional governments and their development partners operating in the area should implement a multi-stakeholder, participatory, co-design and development of programs, projects and interventions to enhance collaboration, youth engagement and benefit. Investments in capacity-building and alternative income-generating activities, entrepreneurship education and business skills training are also important.

Estimating the Impacts of Livelihood Support Interventions on Poverty Reduction in Rural Balochistan

The study evaluates the impacts of livelihood intervention programs implemented by the Balochistan Rural Support Program (BRSP) on poverty reduction in Balochistan. The estimation of livelihood impacts is gauged through several indicators, including the Income Generating Grant (IGG), Community Investment Fund (CIF), and Skill Development (TVET). To this end, data from 1500 households segregated into 950 IGG, 250 CIF, and 300 TVET are selected using a two-stage stratified sampling technique in 8 selected districts of Balochistan. This study mainly adopted mixed research approaches, including the descriptive analysis of the data to reflect the role of these interventions in poverty reduction in Balochistan. In addition, Poverty Score Cards (PSC) values have been used to determine the poverty levels. After implementing livelihood support intervention, it was obtained that Households (HHs) monthly income of IGG, CIF, and TVET beneficiaries increased by 17%, 20%, and 39%, respectively, on average. The meaningful tabulation of livelihood interventions positively impacts multifaceted aspects of rural HHs. The results also give evidence of employment generation and income-earning prospects in rural Balochistan. The results also show that gender equality and support for women's empowerment are positively changed in rural Balochistan. Therefore, the tabulated results of community and HHs’ specific funding programs and human capital formation via skills provisions to ultra-poor and poor rural people justify Balochistan Rural Development and Community Empowerment (BRACE) as a livelihood support initiative for poverty reduction in rural Balochistan. The government and non-government organizations (NGOs) may get insightful policy interventions from this study to bring effective socioeconomic development in rural Balochistan.

More is more. Combined livelihood-education interventions and their effect on child labour in the agricultural sector

ABSTRACT What works to reduce child labour in agriculture? In this paper, we evaluate two randomised livelihood intervention programs, aimed to reduce child labour, particularly in its most exploitative forms, in rural areas of Peru. We evaluate a livelihood intervention provided to farmers in Peru that use the labour of their children on their family farms, accompanied by an education intervention aimed to improve the quality of schools and an awareness-raising intervention. We find that when the livelihood intervention is provided alone, it does not improve economic conditions, and hence generally fails to reduce child labour rates in rural areas. However, when the livelihood intervention is combined with measures to improve the quality of education, we see a reduction in hazardous child labour and child labour overall. Awareness-raising interventions, aimed at changing the perceptions of parents through community interaction, appear to have also had an effect in the reduction of child labour, and these effects were reinforced by education interventions. Results indicate that a comprehensive approach including livelihood support with education and awareness-raising components is a more effective way to reduce child labour and hazardous labour for children in the agricultural sector.

Influence of recurrent assessments during data collection on caregivers and young children for an agricultural livelihood intervention in Kenya: a qualitative study

ObjectivesWe sought to understand the influence of recurrent assessments on the behaviour of children and caregivers in a 2-year study of an agricultural livelihood intervention.DesignThis study used qualitative exit interviews...

The influence of an agricultural intervention on social capital and water insecurity coping strategies: Qualitative evidence from female smallholder farmers living with HIV in western Kenya

BackgroundGreater social capital is associated with positive health outcomes and better HIV management. The ways by which social capital may influence household water insecurity (HHWI), a critical determinant of health among persons living with HIV, remain underexplored. Further, despite the importance of reliable water access and use for health and agricultural productivity, few studies have described the strategies smallholder farmers living with HIV use to manage water insecurity. ObjectiveWe qualitatively explored how an agricultural intervention (provision of a treadle pump for irrigation) influenced HHWI coping strategies through its impacts on social capital among smallholder farmers living with HIV in western Kenya. MethodIn 2018, we purposively recruited participants from the Shamba Maisha study, a randomized agricultural intervention (NCT02815579) that provided irrigation pumps to improve treatment outcomes and food security among smallholder farmers living with HIV in western Kenya (n = 42). Participants shared their experiences with water insecurity through go-along and photo-elicitation interviews. Data were thematically analyzed using inductively developed codes. ResultsParticipants described diverse strategies for coping with agricultural water insecurity. Dimensions of social capital such as feelings of belonging, connectedness, and trust influenced the use of the treadle water pump and other water access behaviors. For instance, participants reported borrowing or sharing water pumps with friends and neighbors if they felt they had a good rapport. In addition, participants indicated a willingness to engage in collective activities, such as supporting the operation of the irrigation pump during planting, when they felt sufficiently connected to a larger group. Overall, individuals in the intervention arm described greater social cohesion, reciprocity, and community connectedness than those in the control arm. ConclusionThe impact of an agricultural intervention on water access and use was described as being modified by social capital among female smallholder farmers living with HIV. Findings suggest that social capital may create an enabling environment for implementing strategies that improve the management and reduce the burden of HIV. Measuring these strategies and their associations with HIV outcomes may strengthen our understanding of resilience among female smallholder farmers living with HIV. The development of a coping strategies index and its use in a longitudinal study could help to identify pathways through which social capital influences health and the effectiveness of livelihood interventions.

An agricultural livelihood intervention is associated with reduced HIV stigma among people with HIV.

HIV stigma undermines antiretroviral treatment (ART) adherence and viral suppression. Livelihood interventions may target drivers of negative attitudes towards people with HIV (PWH) by improving their health and strengthening their economic contributions. We examined the effects of a multisectoral agricultural livelihood intervention on HIV stigma among PWH in western Kenya. Sixteen health facilities were randomly allocated (1 : 1) to intervention or control arms in Shamba Maisha , a cluster randomized controlled trial that aimed to improve HIV-related health through behavioral, mental health, and nutritional pathways. The intervention included a farming loan and agricultural and financial training. Participants had access to farmland and surface water and were at least 18 years old, on ART for more than 6 months, and moderately-to-severely food insecure. We measured internalized, anticipated, and enacted HIV stigma semiannually over 2 years using validated scales. In blinded intent-to-treat analyses, we compared changes in scores over 24 months by study arm, using longitudinal multilevel difference-in-differences linear regression models that accounted for clustering. Of 720 enrolled participants (354 intervention), 55% were women, and the median age was 40 years [interquartile range 34-47 years]. Two-year retention was 94%. Compared with the control arm, the intervention resulted in significant decreases ( P < 0.001) of 0.42 points [95% confidence interval (CI) -0.52 to -0.31) in internalized stigma, 0.43 points (95% CI -0.51 to -0.34) in anticipated stigma, and 0.13 points (95% CI -0.16 to -0.09) in enacted stigma over 24 months. The agricultural livelihood intervention reduced HIV stigma among PWH. Poverty-reduction approaches may be a novel strategy for reducing HIV stigma.

Multivariate mixed-effects ordinal logistic regression models with difference-in-differences estimator of the impact of WORTH Yetu on household hunger and socioeconomic status among OVC caregivers in Tanzania.

Although most of the livelihood programmes target women, those that involve women and men have been evaluated as though men and women were a single homogenous population, with a mere inclusion of gender as an explanatory variable. This study evaluated the impact of WORTH Yetu (an economic empowerment intervention to improve livelihood outcomes) on household hunger, and household socioeconomic status (SES) among caregivers (both women and men) of orphaned and vulnerable children (OVC) in Tanzania. The study hypothesized that women and men respond to livelihood interventions differently, hence a need for gender-disaggregated impact evaluation of such interventions. This is a secondary analysis of longitudinal data, involving caregivers' baseline (2016-2019) and follow-up (2019-2020) data from the USAID Kizazi Kipya project in 25 regions of Tanzania. Two dependent variables (ie, outcomes) were assessed; household hunger which was measured using the Household Hunger Scale (HHS), and Socioeconomic Status (SES) using the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). WORTH Yetu, a livelihood intervention implemented by the USAID Kizazi Kipya project was the main independent variable whose impact on the two outcomes was evaluated using multivariate analysis with a multilevel mixed-effects, ordinal logistic regression model with difference-in-differences (DiD) estimator for impact estimation. The analysis was based on 497,293 observations from 249,655 caregivers of OVC at baseline, and 247,638 of them at the follow-up survey. In both surveys, 70% were women and 30% were men. Their mean age was 49.3 (±14.5) years at baseline and 52.7 (±14.8) years at the follow-up survey. Caregivers' membership in WORTH Yetu was 10.1% at the follow-up. After adjusting for important confounders there was a significant decline in the severity of household hunger by 46.4% among WORTH Yetu members at the follow-up compared to the situation at the baseline (adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) = 0.536, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) [0.521, 0.553]). The decline was 45.7% among women (aOR = 0.543 [0.524, 0.563]) and 47.5% among men (aOR = 0.525 [0.497, 0.556]). Regarding SES, WORTH Yetu members were 15.9% more likely to be in higher wealth quintiles at the follow-up compared to the situation at the baseline (aOR = 1.159 [1.128, 1.190]). This impact was 20.8% among women (aOR = 1.208 [1.170, 1.247]) and 4.6% among men (aOR = 1.046 [0.995, 1.101]). WORTH Yetu was associated with a significant reduction in household hunger, and a significant increase in household SES among OVC caregivers in Tanzania within an average follow-up period of 1.6 years. The estimated impacts differed significantly by gender, suggesting that women and men responded to the WORTH Yetu intervention differently. This implied that the design, delivery, and evaluation of such programmes should happen in a gender responsive manner, recognising that women and men are not the same with respect to the programmes.

Do Livelihood Interventions Contribute to the Prevention of Violent Extremism?

In recent years, livelihood interventions have proliferated in response to violent extremism (VE) driven by socioeconomic challenges in the Sahel. This article evaluates two interventions in Mali targeting at-risk populations (talibés, detainees and former detainees) using a context–mechanism–outcome realist evaluation. Through a mixed-methods approach, Emmanuel Nene Odjidja, Samhita Ayaluri and Daria Fiodorov found that the interventions enhanced livelihood access and fostered trust between at-risk populations and the community. However, converting livelihood access into increased economic resilience for VE prevention requires contextual considerations. To promote VE prevention and resilience, they recommend integrating livelihood interventions with other peacebuilding efforts, addressing systematic, personal and process factors, and adopting a socio-ecological perspective. ■

Impact of a disability-targeted microentrepreneurship programme in Kenya: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial of the InBusiness programme

BackgroundThere is a lack of evidence on the effectiveness of livelihood interventions amongst people with disabilities. In many countries, self-employment or microentrepreneurship is a dominant source of livelihoods for people with disabilities and their caregivers. However, this group may face heightened barriers to successful microentrepreneurship, including discrimination, exclusion from training or inaccessible transport, infrastructure and communication systems. The InBusiness programme is a livelihoods programme targeted to microentrepeneurs with disabilities or their caregivers delivered by a consortium of non-governmental organisations. The programme focuses on improving the skills, practices and opportunities of microentrepreneurs while linking them with procurement opportunities with private and public institutions. This protocol describes a randomised controlled trial of the InBusiness programme in eight counties of Kenya.MethodsThe randomised controlled trial will involve 495 microentrepreneurs who have been verified as eligible for InBusiness by programme implementers. Individuals will be randomised within counties, either being invited to enrol in InBusiness in March 2023 or allocated to a control group. Participants in the control arm will receive information about compliance with business-related laws and available social protection programmes. The trial will assess the impact of InBusiness on household consumption and individual economic empowerment (primary outcomes) as well as food security, well-being, social attitudes, unmet need for disability-related services and microenterprise profits (secondary outcomes). Baseline was conducted in March 2023, and follow-up will be 24 months from baseline (12 months from completion of the programme). Analysis will be through intention to treat. A process evaluation will explore fidelity, mechanisms of impact and the role of context, and complementary qualitative research with participants will be used to triangulate findings across the trial.DiscussionThis study will provide evidence on the impact of a large-scale disability-targeted livelihood programme on household and individual financial security and well-being. Currently, there is a lack of evidence on the effectiveness of livelihood programmes amongst people with disabilities, and so this trial can help inform the design and delivery of InBusiness as well as other livelihood programmes targeted to people with disabilities.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov ISRCTN13693137. Registered on April 24, 2023.

Promotive and preventive interventions for adolescent mental health in Sub-Saharan Africa: a combined scoping and systematic review

IntroductionPoor mental health in adolescence is associated with mental, physical and social problems in later life. Adolescence is, therefore, a critical time for promoting mental well-being and preventing mental illness,...

The Politics of Misalignment: NGO Livelihood Interventions and Exclusionary Land Claims in an Indonesian Oil Palm Enclave

ABSTRACT Across Southeast Asia’s extractive frontier, Indigenous people increasingly negotiate an influx of nonstate actors pushing partnerships and projects to steer livelihoods away from extractivism and toward forest conservation. Yet, NGOs and their donors often struggle to grasp Indigenous peoples’ changing needs and expectations that may prioritize sustaining an income, often via the promises extractive industries propose, over preserving fragmented forests for posterity. This paper examines three interventions by conservation NGOs in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, which leveraged custom (adat) and “alternative” livelihoods through territorial practices to dissuade a Dayak Modang community from releasing ancestral lands for palm oil plantations and coal mines. Drawing on the state’s definition of adat to demarcate Modang territory, NGOs and some Modang engaged in counter-mapping and livelihood initiatives as hopeful expressions of indigeneity and making a living through acts of territorialization. We explore how NGO territorial practices unfolded as simplified spatial expressions that leveraged adat identity, enclosures, and livelihoods, neglecting the contemporary realities of living in a fragmented forest frontier. Although NGO-Modang strategies temporarily slowed dispossession and deforestation, their misaligned livelihood and conservation programs may have reinforced social differentiation between and across Dayak and migrant groups to ultimately facilitate extraction’s expansion.

Grandmothers as Primary Caregivers for Their Grandchildren in Uganda: Challenges Faced and Potential for a Sustainable Livelihood Intervention.

Global drivers of health, such as poverty, climate change, and public health crises, pose significant impact on many vulnerable groups, such as grandmother-caregivers (GMCs). Engaging community partners in this problem could help in understanding salient issues and devising solutions to alleviate the challenges faced by GMCs. The purpose of the current study was to engage community members in rural Uganda in identifying challenges experienced by GMCs and explore the potential for a sustainable livelihood for this population. We used a community-engaged ethnographic methodology for our qualitative study, which was informed by the Sustainable Livelihood Framework. Themes emerged in two domains: GMC Challenges and Potential for Sustainable Livelihoods and Intervention Recommendations. The challenges experienced by GMCs are multifaceted as are the potential solutions. Our findings have the potential to inform community development interventions that support the livelihoods and well-being of GMCs in Uganda and similar settings. [Research in Gerontological Nursing, 17(1), 43-52.].

Links between Household-Level Income-Generating Agricultural Intervention and the Psychological Well-Being of Adolescent Girls in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Affected Households in Southwestern Kenya: A Qualitative Inquiry

BackgroundAdolescent girls may experience poor psychological well-being, such as social isolation, shame, anxiety, hopelessness, and despair linked to food insecurity. ObjectivesThis study aimed to investigate the experiences with and perceived effects of a household-level income-generating agricultural intervention on the psychological well-being of adolescent girls in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-affected households in southwestern Kenya. MethodsWe conducted 62 in-depth interviews with HIV-affected adolescent girls and caregiver dyads in Adolescent Shamba Maisha (NCT03741634), a sub-study of adolescent girls and caregivers with a household member participating in Shamba Maisha (NCT01548599), a multisectoral agricultural and finance intervention trial aimed to improve food security and HIV health indicators. Participants were purposively sampled to ensure diversity in terms of age and location. Data were audiotaped, transcribed, translated, and uploaded into Dedoose (Sociocultural Research Consultants, LLC) software for management. Data were analyzed thematically based on reports from Dedoose. ResultsWe found evidence that a household-level structural intervention aimed at increasing food and financial security among persons living with HIV can contribute to better psychological well-being among adolescent girls residing in these households. The intervention also affected: 1) reduction of social isolation, 2) reduction of shame and stigma, 3) increased attendance and concentration in school, 4) improved caregiver mental health, and 5) reduced parental aggression and improved household communication. These associations were reported more commonly among those in the intervention arm than the control arm. ConclusionsThis study extends existing research by demonstrating how multisectoral structural interventions delivered at a household level can improve the psychological well-being of adolescents. We recommend that future research test livelihood interventions designed specifically for adolescent girls that integrate food-security interventions with other elements to address the social and psychological consequences of food insecurity holistically.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03741634.

Technology for whom? Solar irrigation pumps, women, and smallholders in Nepal

Agricultural technologies are often promoted as a medium for women’s economic empowerment, which can transform unequal gender relations in rural agrarian societies. This paper investigates three solar irrigation pump (SIP) schemes implemented by state and non-state actors and examines their impacts on women and marginal farmers. We utilize a theory of change framework intended to evaluate the effectiveness of livelihood interventions and guide the design of gender transformative interventions. Our analysis relies on 63 qualitative interviews, 9 key informant interviews and 4 telephonic interviews with social mobilisers from the Saptari District in Nepal. The findings shed light on the unequal social and gender relations that have skewed the adoption and benefits of SIP technology. Gender and social inequalities persist, with limited adoption and benefit of SIP among women and smallholders. Women’s involvement in strategic decisions related to SIP adoptions, installations and usages is limited. This study underscores the importance of strategic interventions that foster meaningful women’s empowerment and ensure equitable distribution and benefits from SIP technology. Assessing the effectiveness of SIPs in empowering women, it is crucial to consider whether the resulting access, ownership, or decision-making opportunities challenge, reinforce, or reproduce unequal gender and social relations.

Can Multiple Livelihood Interventions Improve Livelihood Resilience of Out-of-poverty Farmers in Mountain Areas? A Case Study of Longnan Mountain Area, China

Can Multiple Livelihood Interventions Improve Livelihood Resilience of Out-of-poverty Farmers in Mountain Areas? A Case Study of Longnan Mountain Area, China

Distress Out-Migration from Rural India: Exploring Livelihood Realities and Interventions to Mitigate

Distress Out-Migration from Rural India: Exploring Livelihood Realities and Interventions to Mitigate

Comparing the effect of a multisectoral agricultural intervention on HIV-related health outcomes between widowed and married women

IntroductionWidowed women make up 18–40% of the 12 million women living with HIV in eastern and southern Africa. Widowhood has also been associated with greater HIV morbidity and mortality. We compared the effectiveness of a multisectoral climate adaptive agricultural livelihood intervention (called Shamba Maisha) on food insecurity, and HIV related health outcomes among widowed and married women living with HIV in western Kenya. MethodsWe implemented Shamba Maisha (NCT02815579) using a cluster-randomized control trial design. The intervention arm received an US$175 in-kind loan to purchase a micro-irrigation pump, seeds, and fertilizer, and received eight training sessions on sustainable agriculture and financial management. Study outcomes were measured every 6 months over a 24-month follow-up period and trends in outcomes assessed using multilevel mixed-effects models. ResultsThe trial enrolled 232 (61.5%) married and 145 (38.5%) widowed women. Widowed women (mean age 42.8 ± 8.4 years) were older than married women (35.8 ± 9.0 years) (p < 0.01). Almost all widowed women (97.2%) self-identified as household heads compared to 10.8% of married women. Comparing widowed vs married women, reduction in food insecurity (−3.13, 95%CI -4.42, −1.84 vs. −3.08, 95%CI -4.15, −2.02), depressive symptoms (−0.21, 95%CI -0.36, −0.07 vs. −0.19, 95%CI -0.29, −0.08), internalized stigma (−0.33, 95%CI -0.55, −0.11 vs. −0.38, 95%CI -0.57, −0.19), and anticipated stigma (−0.46 95%CI -0.65, −0.28 vs. −0.35, 95%CI -0.50, −0.21) was similar for both groups. In contrast, improvements in social support (−2.22, 95%CI -3.85, −0.59 vs. −4.00, 95%CI -5.16, −2.84; p = 0.08) and reduction in enacted stigma (0.01, 95%CI -0.06, 0.08 vs. −0.14, 95%CI -0.20, −0.09; p < 0.01) were weaker for widowed than married women. ConclusionsOur study is among the first comparing the effect of a livelihood intervention on HIV health outcomes among widowed and married women. Widowed women experienced similar benefits as married women on individual-level outcomes, but weaker benefit on outcomes dependent on their external environment like enacted stigma and social support. Future trials and programs targeting widowed women should bolster stigma reduction and social support.

Exploring Livelihood Strategies of Farmers and Herders and Their Human Well-Being in Qilian Mountain National Park, China

National parks have implemented restrictive measures on human activities to protect the ecological environment, which has changed the livelihood dependence and strategies of farmers and herders. Exploring the impact of livelihood strategies on the human well-being of farmers and herdsmen within the national park construction area can help to better develop livelihood intervention measures to achieve sustainable livelihoods for farmers and herders. A total of 329 farmers and herders in Qilian Mountain National Park in China were investigated, and one-way ANOVA and ordinary least squares were employed to analyze the impact of farmers’ and herders’ livelihood strategies on human well-being in different periods of national park construction. Our results show that the livelihood strategies of farmers and herders play an important role in their well-being. Farmers and herders adopted diversified livelihood strategies after the National Park System Pilot officially launched (after 2015). The well-being advantage of adopting a diversified livelihood strategy became evident over time. Specifically, farmers and herders adopting the settlement diversification livelihood strategy were able to better adapt to the development concept of the national park after the national park pilot was officially established (after 2017). However, nomadic, settled agricultural, and pastoral households were always at a disadvantage in terms of well-being. In addition, distance, nationality, gender, and education level were important factors affecting the well-being of farmers and herders. The results of this study are helpful for improving our understanding of the influence of livelihood strategies on the well-being of farmers and herders and the related challenges they face in the construction of national parks.