Importation Of Live Animals Research Articles

Factors affecting fertility traits and milk yield of Holstein cattle with different origins raised in Trakya region

This study was conducted with Holstein heifers imported from the United States (US), Germany, and the Czech Republic to a private dairy farm in Kırklareli/Lüleburgaz region in Turkey to evaluate their adaptation in terms of milk production and fertility performance. The first insemination age of the herd was 490.62 days, and the first calving age was 804.24 days. The number of inseminations required per pregnancy was calculated as 3.99, gestation length as 279.72 days, and service period as 213.99 days. The rate of abortion and twin births were higher in those of US origin. Increased first calving age was observed in heifers of German origin due to delayed insemination. The mean actual lactation milk yield in the first lactation periods was 11834.75 Lt, 305 days milk yield was 8573.31 Lt, lactation length was 419.61 days, the dry period was 63.02 days. Milk yield performance of Holsteins of US origin was higher in the first lactation period. In conclusion, milk production was profitable; however, the fertility performance of the herd was poor in general. Poor fertility performance was due to poor herd management and adaptation problems. Therefore, after the calving period, more attention should be paid to oestrus monitoring and insemination activities. In Turkey, the success of live animal imports should be well investigated; in particular, problems occurring during animal selection for importation should be evaluated, and short-/long-term national strategies should be developed.

Models To Assess the Risk of Introduction of Selected Animal Viral Diseases Through the Importation of Live Animals As a Key Part of Risk Analysis.

Introduction of an animal viral disease, especially a notifiable disease, into an importing country or region free from the disease may lead to serious epidemiological consequences and economic losses. Trade in live animals is historically considered one of the most important risk pathways. To estimate the magnitude of such risk, the likelihood of a virus’ entry into a country and the consequences of this event should be jointly evaluated. Depending on data availability, the urgency of the problem and the detail level of the objectives, a risk assessment may be conducted in a qualitative, semi-quantitative or quantitative way. The purpose of this review was firstly to provide a brief description of each step of the risk analysis process, with particular emphasis on the risk assessment component, and subsequently to supply examples of different approaches to the assessment of the risk of the introduction of selected animal viral diseases. Based on the reviewed models, the overall likelihood of introduction of particular diseases was generally estimated as low. The output risk value was strongly dependent on the duration of the silent phase of the epidemic in the country of origin. Other parameters with some bearing upon the risk derived from the epidemiological situation in the country of origin and the biosecurity or mitigation measures implemented in the country of destination. The investigated models are universal tools for conducting assessment of the risk of introduction of various animal diseases to any country. Their application may lead to timely implementation of appropriate measures for the prevention of the spread of a disease to another country or region.

Achieving food security through live animal imports in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries

PurposeThis article examines the main factors that drive live animal imports in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in the Middle East.Design/methodology/approachThe analysis is based on a gravity model framework, and it incorporates annual data for imports of cattle, sheep and goats during the period 2004–2017 for six countries. The panel estimation technique is employed to disentangle the drivers of the GCC live animal imports.FindingsThe results reveal that imports of live animals are consistently positive and statistically significantly correlated with the economic sizes of importer countries, liner shipping connectivity (LSC) (for cattle and goats) and culture (for cattle and sheep). Other determinants include falling tariffs for live cattle imports and falling costs of doing business for live sheep imports. Distance is found to exert statistically significant friction for imports of live goats.Practical implicationsThe GCC countries offer substantial opportunities for livestock trade to fulfil the growing demand for meat as a dietary requirement. Countries aiming at the GCC live animal segment of agricultural business would have to ensure reliable access to maritime transport connectivity and better understanding and insights into the business environment, transport logistics, trade policies, economic strength and cultural connections with meat consumption. The food-related supply chain system ought to have an extensive awareness of variables as the findings of this study revealed that can impact exchanges encountered across the supply chains.Originality/valueUntil now, no study has empirically investigated the effect of live animal imports within a coherent trade theoretical framework in the GCC. The novelty of this research is that it makes the first attempt to identify the factors driving the extensive GCC live animal imports for meat consumption with a specific geographical focus. This study also complements the existing sparse empirical literature on trade-in live animals.

Zoonotic risk related to importation of live animals

Zoonotic risk related to importation of live animals

Epidemiological surveillance of bovine viral diarrhea and rift valley fever infections in camel.

Aim:This study was designed to investigate the current epidemiological situation of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and rift valley fever virus (RVFV) infection of camels originating from Sudan “smuggler” and Egypt as part of our future plan for a national surveillance program in Egyptian provinces, which will aid in establishment of control strategy for animal diseases.Materials and Methods:This investigation was accomplished using serological diagnostic and molecular biology techniques. A total number of 200 blood samples were collected from camel (120 originated from Sudan “smuggler” and 80 from local breed) and were subjected for testing both BVDV and RVFV occurrence with different age and sex.Results:Sixty-six of the 200 camels (33%) were positive for BVDV antibodies, and 44 (22%) for BVDV antigen (Ag), and 27 of the 200 camels (13.5%) were positive for RVFV immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies. On the other hand, the seroprevalence of BVDV for antibodies (47.5%), Ag (31.6%), and RVFV IgG antibodies (16.6%) was higher in camel originated from Sudan “smuggler” than of local breed which was 11.2% for BVDV antibodies and 7.5% for BVDV Ag, while it was 8.7% for RVFV IgG antibodies. The incidence of BVDV antibodies, Ag, and RVFV IgG antibodies was the highest in male, up to 9 years of age. The frequency of positive cases was significantly different according to the origin of samples and sex and age of camel for BVDV and RVFV. In addition, seven serologically positive samples for BVDV and five serologically positive samples for RVFV were submitted as a buffy coat for molecular detection by one-step – reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The results demonstrated that three samples were positive for BVDV of camel originated from Sudan (smuggler), while no RVFV Ag was detected in all five samples. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the amplicons obtained from positive RT-PCR samples (three samples) indicated 100% nucleotide homology with Sudan strain 2015 except only one (missense point mutation) by substitution of A to T at position 345 that changed the coded amino acids from T (Threonine) to S (Serine) at residue 115.Conclusion:Camels act as risk animals for the introduction of many infectious diseases from Sudan to Egypt, especially transboundary animal diseases, so strict quarantine measures should be taken during importation of live animals from Sudan to prevent the spread of such diseases.

A Review of Classical Swine Fever Virus and Routes of Introduction into the United States and the Potential for Virus Establishment.

Classical swine fever (CSF) is caused by CSF virus (CSFV) which can be the source of substantial morbidity and mortality events in affected swine. The disease can take one of several forms (acute, chronic, or prenatal) and depending on the virulence of the inoculating strain may result in a lethal infection irrespective of the form acquired. Because of the disease-free status of the United States and the high cost of a viral incursion, a summary of US vulnerabilities for viral introduction and persistence is provided. The legal importation of live animals as well as animal products, byproducts, and animal feed serve as a potential route of viral introduction. Current import regulations are described as are mitigation strategies that are commonly utilized to prevent pathogens, including CSFV, from entering the US. The illegal movement of suids and their products as well as an event of bioterrorism are both feasible routes of viral introduction but are difficult to restrict or regulate. Ultimately, recommendations are made for data that would be useful in the event of a viral incursion. Population and density mapping for feral swine across the United States would be valuable in the event of a viral introduction or spillover; density data could further contribute to understanding the risk of infection in domestic swine. Additionally, ecological and behavioral studies, including those that evaluate the effects of anthropogenic food sources that support feral swine densities far above the carrying capacity would provide invaluable insight to our understanding of how human interventions affect feral swine populations. Further analyses to determine the sampling strategies necessary to detect low levels of antibody prevalence in feral swine would also be valuable.

Application of a quantitative entry assessment model to compare the relative risk of incursion of zoonotic bat-borne viruses into European Union Member States

This paper presents a quantitative assessment model for the risk of entry of zoonotic bat-borne viruses into the European Union (EU). The model considers four routes of introduction: human travel, legal trade of products, live animal imports and illegal import of bushmeat and was applied to five virus outbreak scenarios. Two scenarios were considered for Zaire ebolavirus (wEBOV, cEBOV) and other scenarios for Hendra virus, Marburg virus (MARV) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The use of the same framework and generic data sources for all EU Member States (MS) allows for a relative comparison of the probability of virus introduction and of the importance of the routes of introduction among MSs.According to the model wEBOV posed the highest risk of an introduction event within the EU, followed by MARV and MERS-CoV. However, the main route of introduction differed, with wEBOV and MERS-CoV most likely through human travel and MARV through legal trade of foodstuffs. The relative risks to EU MSs as entry points also varied between outbreak scenarios, highlighting the heterogeneity in global trade and travel to the EU MSs. The model has the capability to allow for a continual updating of the risk estimate using new data as, and when, it becomes available.The model provides an horizon scanning tool for use when available data are limited and, therefore, the absolute risk estimates often have high uncertainty. Sensitivity analysis suggested virus prevalence in bats has a large influence on the results; a 90% reduction in prevalence reduced the risk of introduction considerably and resulted in the relative ranking of MARV falling below that for MERS-CoV, due to this parameter disproportionately affecting the risk of introduction from the trade route over human travel.

Risk-based testing of imported animals: A case study for bovine tuberculosis in The Netherlands

In intra-EU trade, the health status of animals is warranted by issuing a health certificate after clinical inspection in the exporting country. This certificate cannot provide guarantee of absence of infection, especially not for diseases with a long incubation period and no overt clinical signs such as bovine tuberculosis (bTB). The Netherlands are officially free from bTB since 1999. However, frequent reintroductions occurred in the past 15 years through importation of infected cattle. Additional testing (AT) of imported cattle could enhance the probability of detecting an imported bTB infection in an early stage. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of risk-based AT for bTB in cattle imported into The Netherlands.A generic stochastic import risk model was developed that simulates introduction of infection into an importing country through importation of live animals. Main output parameters are the number of infected animals that is imported (Ninf), the number of infected animals that is detected by testing (Ndet), and the economic losses incurred by importing infected animals (loss). The model was parameterized for bTB. Model calculations were optimized to either maximize Ndet or to minimize loss.Model results indicate that the risk of bTB introduction into The Netherlands is very high. For the current situation in which Dutch health checks on imported cattle are limited to a clinical inspection of a random sample of 5–10% of imported animals, the calculated annual Ninf=99 (median value). Random AT of 8% of all imported cattle results in Ndet=7 (median value), while the median Ndet=75 if the sampling strategy for AT is optimized to maximize Ndet. However, in the latter scenario, loss is more than twice as large as in the current situation, because only calves are tested for which cost of detection is higher than the expected gain of preventing a possible outbreak. When optimizing the sampling strategy for AT to minimize loss, only breeding and production cattle are selected for AT resulting in Ndet=1 (median value). Loss is; however, reduced by 75% if compared to the current situation.We conclude that the effectiveness of AT can greatly be improved by risk-based sampling. The optimal sampling strategy for risk-based AT for bTB is highly dependent on the objective of AT. If economic losses are to be contained, AT should focus on breeding and production cattle originating from high-risk countries.

Molecular Study on Foot and Mouth Disease Virus in Beheira Governorate, Egypt during 2014

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most contagious disease of mammals and has a great potential for causing severe economic loss in susceptible cloven-hoofed animals. Egypt has a long history of occurrence of FMDV outbreaks, as the country is dependent on importation of live animals and meat from many countries all over the world. The present study was designed for detection, isolation and molecular characterization of FMDV circulating among different regions in Behaira governorate. Thirty-eight tissue samples were collected from clinically diseased cattle and buffalo from different localities of Beheira governorate. Direct detection of FMDV using ELISA revealed that 84.2% of the samples were positive. Molecular characterization showed that 24 samples (75%) were positive for serotype O and eight samples (25%) were positive for serotype SAT2. This indicates the predominance of serotype O FMDV in Behira, Egypt.

Identification of hotspots in the European union for the introduction of four zoonotic arboviroses by live animal trade.

Live animal trade is considered a major mode of introduction of viruses from enzootic foci into disease-free areas. Due to societal and behavioural changes, some wild animal species may nowadays be considered as pet species. The species diversity of animals involved in international trade is thus increasing. This could benefit pathogens that have a broad host range such as arboviruses. The objective of this study was to analyze the risk posed by live animal imports for the introduction, in the European Union (EU), of four arboviruses that affect human and horses: Eastern and Western equine encephalomyelitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis and Japanese encephalitis. Importation data for a five-years period (2005-2009, extracted from the EU TRACES database), environmental data (used as a proxy for the presence of vectors) and horses and human population density data (impacting the occurrence of clinical cases) were combined to derive spatially explicit risk indicators for virus introduction and for the potential consequences of such introductions. Results showed the existence of hotspots where the introduction risk was the highest in Belgium, in the Netherlands and in the north of Italy. This risk was higher for Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE) than for the three other diseases. It was mainly attributed to exotic pet species such as rodents, reptiles or cage birds, imported in small-sized containments from a wide variety of geographic origins. The increasing species and origin diversity of these animals may have in the future a strong impact on the risk of introduction of arboviruses in the EU.

Rift Valley Fever in Ruminants, Republic of Comoros, 2009

Rift Valley Fever in Ruminants, Republic of Comoros, 2009

Reassessing the risk from rabies: A continuing threat to the UK?

The threat of re-introduction of rabies virus into the United Kingdom exists on several levels. Firstly, importation of live animals into the UK continues to challenge the regulations in place to ensure that the virus does not enter the country. Secondly, the indigenous bat population is known to carry a virus genetically related to rabies virus, the European bat lyssavirus (EBLV). Molecular characterization of this virus has further characterized it as being EBLV type 2, genetically distinct from a similar virus that has caused several human deaths across Europe. Finally, a lack of awareness of the threat of rabies and related viruses to travelers visiting endemic areas also constitutes a re-introduction threat to the UK population. This review will address the most recent cases of lyssavirus infection, in both humans and animals, either contracted within the UK or from abroad. We highlight the current diagnostic necessity for testing indigenous and foreign cases and comment on current UK government policy in light of a European call to harmonise rabies legislation across Europe.

Animal trade and non‐indigenous species introduction: the world‐wide spread of squirrels

AbstractAim In this study, a dataset on world‐wide squirrel introductions has been used to locate the relative pathways and to determine the factors correlated with species establishment.Location The world.Methods The analysis includes a chronological table of introductions, a biogeographical analysis and an assessment of the likelihood of establishment according to species, propagule pressure, area of origin and characteristics of the recipient area.Results The main vector of such introductions was the intentional importation of live animals. Introductions increased in developed countries and proportionately to the volume of imported mammals. Moreover, areas characterized by higher numbers of native squirrels were more invaded. Squirrels were often introduced deliberately and only to a smaller extent escaped from captivity. The likelihood of their establishment increased proportionately to the number of animals released and decreased proportionately to the increase of the latitudinal distance between the recipient area and the native range of the species. The likelihood that the release of one pair of either Sciurus or Callosciurus species would establish a new population was higher than 50%.Main conclusion Squirrels proved to be successful invaders and their importation should be restricted so as to prevent further introductions.

Quantitative risk assessment of foot-and-mouth disease introduction into Spain via importation of live animals

Spain has been a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD)-free country since 1986. However, the FMD epidemics that recently affected several European Union (EU) member countries demonstrated that the continent is still at high risk for FMD virus (FMDV) introduction, and that the potential consequences of those epidemics are socially and financially devastating. This paper presents a quantitative assessment of the risk of FMDV introduction into Spain. Results suggest that provinces in north-eastern Spain are at higher risk for FMDV introduction, that an FMD epidemic in Spain is more likely to occur via the import of pigs than through the import of cattle, sheep, or goats, and that a sixfold increase in the proportion of premises that quarantine pigs prior to their introduction into the operation will reduce the probability of FMDV introduction via import of live pigs into Spain by 50%. Allocation of resources towards surveillance activities in regions and types of operations at high risk for FMDV introduction and into the development of policies to promote quarantine and other biosecurity activities in susceptible operations will decrease the probability of FMD introduction into the country and will strengthen the chances of success of the Spanish FMD prevention program.

Quantitative assessment of the likelihood of the introduction of classical swine fever virus into the Danish swine population

Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) is a major infectious-disease agent of livestock and causes production losses through increased morbidity and mortality, particularly of young pigs. We identified the pathways for introduction of CSFV into Denmark and assessed the annual probability of introduction (based on a US Department of Agriculture model). We developed pathways based on material from scientific articles, reports from veterinary agencies and custom officers, and consultations with experts in the field. Returning livestock trucks and legal meat imports were the most important pathways for CSFV introduction to Denmark from other EU states with predicted overall likelihood of one or more introductions of CSFV within a median of 130 years (46–280) provided mitigating steps, such as cleaning trucks, were maintained to a very high standard. The likelihood would increase dramatically if these activities were abandoned: one or more introductions within a median of 5.2 years (2–14). The predicted risks from live-animal imports and semen were extremely low given the very few imports of these products. The most important countries for Denmark's CSFV risk are Germany and the Netherlands, though this risk is again predicted to be dramatically reduced as long as mitigating activities are maintained. We predicted the risk from illegal movements of pork into Denmark to be low because little pork enters through this route and only a small fraction of this pork would be fed to pigs.

Assessment of the likelihood of the introduction of foot-and-mouth disease through importation of live animals into the Malaysia-Thailand-Myanmar peninsula

To assess the likelihood of an introduction of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) into the Malaysia-Thailand-Myanmar (MTM) peninsula through terrestrial movement of livestock. 89,294 cattle and buffalo legally moved into the MTM peninsula. A quantitative risk assessment was conducted by use of a stochastic simulation. Patterns of livestock movement were ascertained through review of relevant governmental records and regulations and by interviewing farmers, traders, and local officers when the records did not exist. Parameters identified in the process were the probabilities of livestock having FMD and of FMD infection going undetected during import processes. The probability of an animal accepted for import having FMD was also assessed. Sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the effects that each parameter had on the model. The simulation yielded an average consignment prevalence of 10.95%. Typically, each animal in a quarantine facility had a 2.7% chance of having an inapparent form of FMD infection; hence, it was likely an animal would not be identified as infected. Findings revealed that the mean probability of an animal accepted for import having FMD was 2.9%, and the risk was as high as 11%. Results of the model allowed for the evaluation of movement regulations currently imposed in the MTM peninsula. Evidence from the study suggested that current practices in animal movement were far from efficient in preventing introduction of FMD-infected animals into the MTM region, and additional measures will be necessary.

Estudio retrospectivo sobre la fiebre aftosa en África Occidental de 1970 a 2003

A retrospective study of foot and mouth disease in seven West African countries was conducted for the period 1970 to 2003. The study included three cattle-exporting Sahel countries (Burkina-Faso, Mali and Niger) and four cattle-importing coastal countries (Benin, Côte d'lvoire, Ghana and Togo). Foot and mouth disease has been enzootic in these countries since 1990/1991. Four of the seven serotypes are regularly notified (O, A, SAT 1 and SAT 2). In the seven countries as a whole, 198 biological samples from identified foot and mouth disease outbreaks confirmed the involvement of the following serotypes: O (62 outbreaks); A (32 outbreaks); SAT 1 (18 outbreaks); SAT 2 (86 outbreaks). This result, which is largely underestimated, clearly demonstrates the seriousness of foot and mouth disease in West Africa, whose livestock production system characterised by continual uncontrolled animal movements facilitates the spread of the disease. Unlike in Southern Africa, for foot and mouth disease to be controlled in West Africa it is necessary immediately to introduce a regional strategy involving all countries which takes into account the real situation in the field: transhumance, nomadism and live-animal imports by coastal countries.

Risk of introduction of BSE into Sweden by import of cattle from the United Kingdom

All cattle of United Kingdom origin imported to Sweden since 1980 were traced ( n=94) and the probability that none of these imported cattle had clinical signs of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) at the year of slaughter (death) was calculated. If BSE had been introduced by live-animal imports, the consequences of such an event also was evaluated. The potential of the recently introduced surveillance system of high-risk cattle to detect such an event also was evaluated. We found that BSE most probably has not been introduced to Sweden by live-animal imports. We also found that, if this event had occurred and assuming a worst-case scenario that the animal was not prevented from being rendered, the rendering system (during certain periods) would not have prevented further spread of infection. Finally, we found that the BSE surveillance of high-risk cattle has not been in place long enough to verify that this event has not occurred (as of December 2001).

Risks related to the introduction of exotic diseases : a european view

The European Union (EU) has historically been free of a number of epidemic diseases of livestock and is approaching eradication of several others. This situation is put at risk by the importation of live animals and animal products. Animal products include products which are broadly described as veterinary biologicals. For the purposes of assessing and controlling risks, these fall into two groups: crude products (e.g. serum and other blood products) and medicinal products (e.g. vaccines and other immunological products). This second group is covered by another paper in this issue of the Review. Risk reduction methods may be applied to crude veterinary biologicals pre- or post-importation. Pre-importation methods include product treatment, or ensuring that the source of the product is "risk-free'. Post-importation risk reduction involves product testing, or treatment achieved by channelling products to commercial operations which are covered by European medicines legislation. At present, EU Member States issue health certificates individually for crude veterinary biologicals, and conditions for entry may differ between States. This process will soon be harmonised (the provisions for marketing medicinal products have already been harmonised).

Brucellosis in Saudi Arabia

This paper describes the history of brucellosis and the current public health picture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Health protection is made more difficult by several factors: (a) the local custom of drinking raw and warm milk of sheep, goats, and camels, (b) the animal reservior of infection in the country complicated by importation of live animals both for sacrifice during Haj periods and to increase commercial flocks, and (c) by uncontrolled movements of humans and stock across political borders.