Lithic Sources Research Articles

Provenance and long-term circulation of archaeological obsidian in the Puna de Copiapó (25-27°S), South-Central Andes

We present obsidian compositional data obtained by X-ray fluorescence analysis in the Andean highlands (25-27°S/68-69°W) of northern Chile. Seventy-six samples (n = 76) from three lithic sources and six archaeological sites were analyzed, covering a chronological sequence from 10,100 to 500 cal BP. Compositional analyses indicate the exploitation of the Ciénaga Redonda and Cerro Manchado local sources as well as Ona-Las Cuevas and Salar del Hombre Muerto located between 200 and 230 km away on the eastern slope of the Andes, in northwestern Argentina. The results obtained show that the Puna de Copiapó has been a key area for circulation between the eastern and western slopes of the Andes since pre-Columbian times.

Introducing SourceXplorer, an open-source statistical tool for guided lithic sourcing

Archaeologists' access to analytical infrastructure has grown exponentially over the last two decades. This is especially the case for benchtop X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and portable XRF (pXRF) instruments, which are now practically commonplace in archaeological laboratories and provide users with a non-destructive and rapid means to analyze the elemental compositions of archaeological specimens. As XRF has become more accessible, the volume of analytical measurements available in archaeological datasets as well as the number and diversity of researchers participating in data collection have inherently increased. Those researchers, who have various levels of experience with the nuances of lithic sourcing procedures, are also often the ones attempting to interpret the elemental data they produce. While standardized analytical procedures have enabled inexperienced analysts to take accurate and reproducible XRF measurements, interpreting the resulting data is more difficult to convert and standardize with the same degree of user-friendliness. To address this challenge, we have bundled a series of statistical approaches and data exploration tools into an intuitive open-source graphical user interface designed to facilitate reproducible and robust outcomes during lithic sourcing studies. Our application, SourceXplorer, permits easy access to and exploration of numeric baseline data using a map interface while facilitating a guided interpretation of source affiliations for archaeological specimens (e.g., lithics) within any natural context using multivariate statistical analyses. We demonstrate SourceXplorer's functionality in relation to a complex archaeological challenge by examining evidence for the procurement and use of lithic material from previously undocumented toolstone source locations in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. We also provide open access to SourceXplorer, including both a deployed version of the application that can be used with any Internet browser and the packaged script, which can be run locally in the open-source R statistical programming environment.

Formative Exchange in the Andean Titicaca Basin: Isotopic Camelid Data and Lithic Sourcing: Evidence From the Taraco Peninsula, Bolivia

The Andean mountains have a mosaic distribution of resources, and no one place has everything a community requires for subsistence, social life and ritual. Therefore, from the very beginning of human habitation there is evidence for short-and long-distance movement and trade. Settled societies in the Andes most commonly used llama caravans that crisscrossed the mountains and highland valleys, although these are hard to identify. Here we present several data sets that inform about southern Lake Titicaca Formative movement of goods and caravans in the build-up to the caravan-driven polity of Middle Horizon Tiwanaku. Plant remains reveal the increasing tempo of goods movement. Olivine basalt results from XRF analyses clarify the extent of goods movement from their sources in the basin. Finally, strontium, carbon and oxygen isotope results from Formative camelid teeth inform us about the extent of long-and short-distance caravan movement emanating out of a shoreline ceremonial center.

Potential raw material sources for the production of lithic artefacts in western Central Europe – GIS-data for the Rhineland, Westphalia, and the Benelux countries

Since July 2013, the project D4 of the Collaborative Research Centre 806 at the University of Cologne has dealt with the Mesolithic in western Germany. During the first phase of this research, the primary tasks were to establish a regional chronology for the Middle Stone Age on the one hand, and the mapping of all known sites in the Rhineland and Westphalia regarding the different Mesolithic phases on the other. Since July 2017, the project has focused on mobility, cultural exchange, and human-environment interactions during the Final Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic in Central Europe. Due to the poor conditions of preservation, numerous Palaeolithic and Mesolithic assemblages only contain lithic artefacts. Communication networks and mobility patterns of the hunter-gatherer groups can be deduced from the raw material of these finds for a considerable number of sites. Apart from pottery, lithic artefacts and their resources also illustrate the social and economic networks during the Neolithic. The raw material of knapped artefacts and their potential geological sources offer important information relating to the project's goals.A map of the potential raw material sources for knapped artefacts in comparison with the archaeological finds is the basis for any suggestion about mobility patterns and communication networks. In general, information on geological lithic sources and the archaeological inventories in western Central Europe is far more detailed than for other regions. These data and all the information gathered on lithic raw material sources for western Germany and the Benelux countries allow us to provide a GIS-database using the software QGIS in the form of several maps and data tables with geological and archaeological information as well as detailed descriptions and references.One important result of this paper addresses the reconstruction of lithic raw material catchment areas. Three examples from younger Mesolithic sites show that the more precise petrographic method for identifying lithic raw materials results in much larger catchment areas than traditional macroscopic identification, leading to new considerations for estimating population densities during the later Middle Stone Age.

Evaluating machine learning techniques for archaeological lithic sourcing: a case study of flint in Britain

It is 50 years since Sieveking et al. published their pioneering research in Nature on the geochemical analysis of artefacts from Neolithic flint mines in southern Britain. In the decades since, geochemical techniques to source stone artefacts have flourished globally, with a renaissance in recent years from new instrumentation, data analysis, and machine learning techniques. Despite the interest over these latter approaches, there has been variation in the quality with which these methods have been applied. Using the case study of flint artefacts and geological samples from England, we present a robust and objective evaluation of three popular techniques, Random Forest, K-Nearest-Neighbour, and Support Vector Machines, and present a pipeline for their appropriate use. When evaluated correctly, the results establish high model classification performance, with Random Forest leading with an average accuracy of 85% (measured through F1 Scores), and with Support Vector Machines following closely. The methodology developed in this paper demonstrates the potential to significantly improve on previous approaches, particularly in removing bias, and providing greater means of evaluation than previously utilised.

Chert exploitation and circulation in eastern Lombardy (Northern Italy): a diachronic overview through prehistory

This work focuses on the Eastern Lombardy Prealps (central Southern Alps), including the Brescia and Bergamo provinces. Knappable lithic raw materials are represented by cherts and radiolarites which are quite common in the Jurassic-Cretaceous sedimentary series. Tectonics played an important role for the preservation of good chert outcrops. Several prehistoric sites are located not far away from the primary lithic sources; in particular we have identified three main areas with good outcrops. South-north mobility along the main valleys is highlighted by the raw materials displacements from the outcrops, situated at the mouth of the valleys, to the north. The Palaeolithic record of the area is very poor. Mousterian sites are generally located near the outcrops. An Epigravettian site is situated far away from the primary sources in the mid-mountain easily accessible by valley routes. A greater mobility is documented in the Mesolithic when also extra-regional cherts (western Trentino) were introduced in the sites. In the Brescia district, starting from the Neolithic and during the Copper age, we observe an increase in the import of very good chert types from the Baldo/Lessini area for specific purposes together with the exploitation of the local resources for domestic use.

Lithic economy and prehistoric human behavioral ecology viewed from southern Jordan

A lithic sourcing study coupled with analyses of lithic reduction strategies and settlement- procurement patterns of Middle Paleolithic (Late Levantine Mousterian) and Early Neolithic (Late Middle PPNB) occupations revealed intertwined factors that shaped the different lithic provisioning strategies of the prehistoric groups. The accessibility and morphometrics of lithic sources, the techniques guiding the reduction process, economizing measures conditioned by elements of Optimal Foraging Theory and the settlement-procurement patterns of the consuming groups were important factors modeling the different lithic provisioning strategies. The interrelationship of these factors traces the complex process of lithic procurement and places it more fully within the context of human behavioral ecology.

Exploring Mid-Late Pleistocene lithic procurement strategies at Shishan Marsh 1: Preliminary geochemical characterization of chert sources around the Greater Azraq Oasis Area, Jordan

Recent excavations at the site of Shishan Marsh 1 in the Azraq basin, Jordan have uncovered several artifact-bearing layers that date within the Middle (266 ± 40 kya) and Late (125 ± 12 kya) Pleistocene. A paleoecological assessment of sediments from this period indicates predominantly warm and dry conditions in the region, similar to those of the present. Hominins living under these hot and dry conditions contracted around a receding spring- and wadi-fed water source for subsistence. As such, they were limited to the distances they could venture to acquire raw material resources. Consequently, Shishan Marsh 1 presents an opportunity to investigate lithic procurement strategies practiced by Paleolithic hominins in an arid environment. This paper presents the preliminary results of an on-going provenance study of lithic sources in the region and a sample of chert artifacts using LA-ICP-MS. The preliminary results indicate that predominantly local procurement was practiced. However, some artifacts were geochemically more consistent with distant sources and still others did not correlate with any sampled source. This latter group indicates that more sources need to be included, as there is greater variability within the Azraq basin than what is documented in this study.

Geochemical fingerprinting of Monegros cherts: Redefining the origin of a prehistoric tracer

The geographical name of Monegros has traditionally been used to describe a high‐quality, dark‐coloured chert originating in a carbonate lacustrine environment, being one of the most important long‐distance tracers in south‐west Europe during prehistory. This chert type outcrops in the Monegros region, situated in the Ebro Basin (north‐eastern Iberia), but not only there, as cherts with the same descriptions are found in other regions, some far from the homonymous area. Nevertheless, prehistorians working on the characterization of lithic sources have frequently used the term ‘Monegros' to define this chert, basing their attributions solely on macroscopic descriptions. These are not sufficient as they do not allow cherts from the Monegros region to be distinguished from cherts from other regions. In this study, the area where Monegros cherts outcrop was delimited and fieldwork was carried out to identify the origin of the geological formations and the preserved outcrops. The classic approach has proved to be insufficient for this purpose, so geochemical fingerprinting using energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence (ED‐XRF) spectroscopy was performed. The results obtained after this first geochemical approach show that some differences can be found between the different formations in the Monegros region in terms of their major and minor components.

Population convergence in the Strobel Plateau: A discussion based on the study of lithic raw materials variability

Rock art research carried out in the Strobel Plateau (Santa Cruz province, Patagonia, Argentina - 700 to 1200 masl) has shown that during Late Holocene population convergence took place in this area, where information was concentrated and distributed on a supra-regional scale (Belardi & Goñi 2006; Goñi 2010; Re 2010; Goñi et al. 2007, 2014). The central position of this plateau in the province's steppe would also be a crucial factor regarding this process (Belardi & Goñi 2006). In this context, the aim of this work is to study this idea of population dynamics given the evidence from lithic technology. In order to do this, we first consider the analysis of variability and provenance of lithic raw materials used for the manufacture of artefacts. It is important to highlight that after 15 years of research carried out in the Strobel Plateau we have not found any lithic source. However, previous works suggest that lithic resources used in the Strobel Plateau are located in nearby areas. Therefore, when analysing the variability, provenance and distance of sources, this work seeks to discuss the access to the plateau and the regional circulation axes. The obtained results support the idea of population convergence occurring in Late Holocene.

Age of Obsidian Butte in Imperial County, California, Through Infrared Stimulated Luminescence Dating of Potassium Feldspar from Tuffaceous Sediment

ABSTRACTObsidian Butte is an important lithic source for obsidian and artifacts from this location are distributed across archaeological sites in southern California and adjacent parts of northern Mexico. For this study, we used drill core material for infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating of potassium feldspar extracted from tuffaceous sediment directly underlying obsidian-bearing lava from Obsidian Butte. In addition, a core sample from lacustrine sediment below the tuffaceous sedimentary unit was dated by the same method. Stratigraphically consistent ages between 2.51 ± 0.32 kilo-annum (ka) (1 sigma uncertainty; average of two tuffaceous sediment samples) and 4.39 ± 0.49 ka (lacustrine sediment sample) were obtained. This constrains the eruption and earliest availability of the lithic resource of Obsidian Butte to 490 BCE (with uncertainty limits of ±320 years at ∼68 percent confidence, and ±640 years at ∼95 percent confidence). Since then, it would have been accessible during intermittent desiccation of Lake Cahuilla. This new date redefines obsidian from Obsidian Butte as a marker for the late prehistoric period.

LegioLit: Knappable material lithotheque in the Prehistory Laboratory at the University of León, Spain

This work introduces a comparative collection located in the Prehistory Laboratory at the University of León (Spain) specialised in knappable raw materials, mainly comprising radiolarite and black chert (micro-crypto crystalline quartz), from the western Cantabrian Mountains (north of Iberian Peninsula). A standardised protocol of sample collection and data organisation was developed, which includes the use of several methodologies. First, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for referencing lithic sources. Second, direct observation of the sample for the macroscopic characterization, both de visu and stereomicroscope. Third, petrographic microscopy for a description of main petrological, and palaeontological features, complemented with the identification of the different minerals that make up the samples by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Forth, X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and Thermogravimetry – Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TG-DSC) for geochemical and thermal features of the samples. Finally, the results of these analyses were entered in a database. All this information is contributing towards the creation of a physical reference collection specialised in local Palaeozoic formations (mostly from Devonian to Carboniferous) that outcrop in the western Cantabrian Mountains, a region whose potential resource base was previously not very well known. This collection would allow to compare archaeological lithic remains from different sites inside and outside the Cantabrian Mountains.

Archaic semisedentary foragers and analytical nodule analysis: The Aught-Six site of Northwestern Colorado

Nodule analysis is designed to highlight the ways in which different lithic sources were utilized and incorporated into the stone tool industries of past societies. In 2008 and 2009, excavations in the Piceance Basin of Northwestern Colorado, an area with local chert and quartzite quarries, provided an opportunity to use a nodule analyses for a Section 106-driven project. The Aught-Six site lithic assemblage suggests that Archaic tool kits in Northwestern Colorado are likely to be heavily reliant on a variety of raw materials found across the region, though Bridger chert nodules were the primary objective pieces for the new tools during the basin house occupation. The results of the analyses not only highlight specific areas of projectile point production, but they also indicate that nodule analysis remains a powerful analytical method for understanding how raw materials are incorporated into the technological systems of semisedentary Archaic foragers.

Technological Choice and Raw Material Availability: Lithic Production Implements in Western Belize

ABSTRACTIn lithic studies, much attention is devoted to analyses of production processes and finished tools while little attention is paid to production implements. Hammerstones present an interesting problem as many areas with readily available lithic raw material sources lack materials for high-quality hammerstones. This paper uses a case study from a chert-rich area, the upper Belize River valley of western Belize, to examine how the Late Classic Maya acquired material to be used as hammerstones. This paper finds that lithic producers used locally available poor-quality stone as well as imported materials, such as groundstone, as hammerstones, suggesting multiple acquisition networks existed through which lithic producers obtained percussion implements.

Flaked stone assemblage variability across the Weipa region of western Cape York Peninsula, Queensland

Shell mounds located on the coastal and estuarine fringes are the best-known archaeological feature in the Weipa region, northwestern Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Other archaeological deposits have received less attention, with stone artefacts thought to be all but absent reflecting the lack of raw material suitable for flaking in the region. Cultural heritage surveys on the bauxite plateau in the Weipa region undertaken since 2003 have changed this view. Here we report on stone artefacts manufactured from quartz, quartzite, silcrete, and mudstone. Surprisingly, flakes and cores in assemblages from across the surveyed region retain a relatively large proportion of cortex, indicating limited lithic reduction despite the lack of local raw material. Comparisons made with assemblage characteristics from other regions in Australia indicate that this lack of core reduction may reflect use of the Albatross Bay landscape by people who were confident of being able to access the lithic sources outside the region to replenish their tool kits.

The Watts Point dacite source and its geological and archaeological occurrence along the shores of the Salish Sea, British Columbia Canada

The archaeological record of the Salish Sea of the Southern Northwest Coast of North America is dominated the use of Fine-Grained Volcanic rocks (FGV). To date no formal study of the geochemistry of an FGV source in this region exists, despite several studies that have attempted to address the nature of lithic sources and their cultural use over the past 25 years. These studies suffer from a lack of systematic investigation of a primary FGV source in the region. To date, researchers in this area do not have a complete set of reference materials for any FGV source, including samples from proximal glacial/beach deposits, for full and meaningful comparisons. This research will address some fundamental questions but also present research questions regarding lithic provenance. This research documents a full analysis of a known source of FGV in the area and offers initial observations about its use over the past 9700 years.

Magdalenian occupations between 20000 and 15000 cal BP in the Pyrenean foothills: test-pitting the Paleolithic sequence of Laa 2 cave (Arudy, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France)

Because of its rich record of Magdalenian sites, the Arudy Basin is a key case for the study of resettlement dynamics in the Pyrenean valleys after the Last Glacial Maximum. Interpretations are, however, hampered by the ancient age of many excavations. The recently acquired data from Laa 2 cave contribute to filling this gap, although the excavation of the Paleolithic layers was restricted to a very small surface. Layer C5 documents a very early –but still poorly defined– reoccupation of the cave (20000-19500 cal BP) that probably took place shortly after the deglaciation of the lower valley. Layers C4 to C2 (18500-15000 cal BP) document the evolution of the Middle and Upper Magdalenian in a cool, humid and open landscape, although evidence of reforestation appears in layer C2. The species hunted include a large proportion of mountain ungulates in the earlier layers, but horse and reindeer increase in proportion in the later layers. Birds and foxes are also exploited, and the question of the presence of dogs is raised, although not conclusively. Lithic sources seem to diversify in the Upper Magdalenian, along with an evolution in the dimensions of lithic armatures. The osseous industry also shows evidence of changes in the design of armatures (presence of forked implements) and includes a single evidence of portable art (an engraved scapula).

First evidence of prehistoric eclogite quarrying for polished tools and their circulation on the Iberian Peninsula

AbstractThis research provides the first evidence of prehistoric quarrying of eclogitic rocks on the Iberian peninsula. Such metamorphosed basic igneous rocks are known to have been used in southern Spain and Portugal during late prehistory as a raw material for the making of polished lithic tools (axes, adzes, chisels, and hammers). These rocks were widely used primarily because of their tolerance to blow and friction due to their mineralogical and textural characteristics. We have identified two quarries within the Sierra de Baza Natural Park (Granada), in the Betic Cordillera of southern Spain: Rambla del Agua and Cerro de San Cristóbal. The bedrock geology of these quarries forms part of the Mulhacen Complex Ophiolite Unit (Nevado‐Filábride Domain), which discontinuously outcrops along a 250‐km belt in southeastern Spain. Petrographic and geochemical analyses were conducted on raw materials from quarries in the Sierra de Baza and compared with archaeological materials from different sites in southern Iberia. These analyses allow us to specify the Nevado‐Filábride‐derived lithic source and define exchange networks. Archaeological sites around the studied quarries chronologically date their use between the early Neolithic and Bronze Age (∼5500–1500 B.C.).

“Undatable, unattractive, redundant”? The Rapavi silcrete source, Saint-Pierre-Eynac (Haute-Loire, France): Challenges studying a prehistoric quarry-workshop in the Massif Central mountains

Silcretes are not widely discussed archaeologically as a prehistoric lithic resource in Europe, despite there being many years of geological research into their formation, and in some regions, a long record of their use in prehistory. In the Massif Central, south eastern France, various silcrete sources represent some of the largest and best quality siliceous stone sources within this otherwise volcanic area. Field research within a wider programme of landscape archaeology and lithic sourcing identified a quarry-workshop for one of these silcrete sources, at Rapavi, Saint-Pierre-Eynac (Haute-Loire).Archaeological and geological results are reported, discussing the technological behaviour uncovered at this locale and its wider regional connections, including the presence of imported flint artefacts. Additionally, the Rapavi silcrete provides an example of the challenges encountered when analysing raw materials with idiosyncratic fracture properties, and attempting to disentangle quarry-workshop palimpsests.

The Role of Stone in Island Societies in Neolithic Atlantic Europe: Creating Places and Cultural Landscapes

The focus of the paper is an engagement with the significance of the exploitation of stone sources to make objects, particularly stone axe heads on islands in northwest Europe during the Neolithic period (4000 – 2500 BC). Case studies of Lambay Island in the Irish Sea, Rathlin Island off the northeast coast of Ireland, and the Shetland Islands explore the use of these three stone sources through the archaeological record, examining the biographies of objects (from quarries, through use, to discard or deposition) and applying a range of approaches to understanding material culture. What emerges is an understanding of the central role these three lithic sources played in how people engaged with and created their island places and landscapes. Through their daily engagement with different stone sources (including the ones focused on here) at a range of scales, people created and sustained social relationships and conventions. Hence it is argued that stone artefacts from local sources played a special role in shaping identities on the three islands.