Lithic Samples Research Articles

Application of 2D shape analysis to study Epigravettian lithic assemblages: assessing its analytical potential

In this paper, we apply a two-dimensional (2D) Geometric morphometric analysis to a sample of Epigravettian lithic artefacts with the aim of assessing the potential of such an approach to study Epigravettian lithic assemblages. The lithic sample comes from layer 9c2 (Evolved Epigravettian, Upper Palaeolithic, about 18,000-19,000 years ago) of Grotta Paglicci (Apulia, southern Italy). After extracting the outline coordinates from high-resolution images using the software DiaOutline, we conduct Elliptic Fourier Analysis, Principal Component Analysis, and Linear Discriminant Analysis in the R package Momocs to investigate the internal variability of the sample. Shape analysis confirms that 1) the production of microbladelets was not linked to a dedicated reduction sequence and 2) the modification of blanks into backed points followed a rather standardised stone tool design. The result opens interesting perspectives for the routine implementation of 2D shape analyses complementary to the classical technological ones.

Sources of geomaterials in the Sicani Mountains during the Early Middle Ages: A case study of Contrada Castro, central western Sicily

AbstractFrom 2017, an unknown rural settlement in Contrada Castro at Corleone (Palermo Province, western Sicily) was investigated as part of the ‘Harvesting Memories Project’. The stratigraphic sequence, supported by radiocarbon dating, has demonstrated a reoccupation of a pre‐Roman site during the transition between the Byzantine and Islamic periods. In particular, the main occupation occurred in the late 8th–9th century when pottery kilns and a probable warehouse were constructed. During the 10th–11th century, a new structure with different orientations replaced the previous buildings that had already collapsed. Specifically focusing on a perspective of the household production and its relationship to the surrounding landscapes of this site, this paper presents the results of a geological survey and petrographic analysis of ceramic finds and lithic samples to identify the source area of the geomaterials used in the studied settlement. The ceramic finds were divided into different Paste Groups based on the characteristics of a polarizing microscope study. The use of some locally available raw materials was recorded both for ceramic and lithic samples. Such an approach enables us to better understand ceramic craft technology, clay and lithic procurement strategies and, more broadly, the consumption of household pottery in the Early Medieval site in Contrada Castro. Furthermore, this study verifies the close relationship that this rural settlement had with the surrounding resources in the area and reveals a connection with the city of Palermo during the Early Middle Ages.

Non-Invasive Approach to Investigate the Mineralogy and Production Technology of the Mosaic Tesserae from the Roman Domus of Villa San Pancrazio (Taormina, Italy)

The archaeological excavations at Villa San Pancrazio (Taormina, Italy) are bringing to light a vast Roman-Imperial residential quarter featuring luxurious dwellings decorated with wall paintings and mosaic floors, pointing it out as one of the most significant archaeological sites of the city. The polychrome and black and white mosaics recovered date back to the middle Imperial period, during the 2nd century AD. This work deals with the first archaeometric investigations of the materials employed for the tesserae production with the aim of elucidating the mineralogical composition and obtaining analytical evidence that can contribute to extracting information related to their production technology. For that purpose, a non-invasive methodology, based on micro energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (μ-EDXRF) spectrometry and Raman spectroscopy, was used to characterize a wide selection of stone, ceramic and glass tesserae. Chemometric tools were exploited to manage the large set of elemental data collected on black and white lithic samples, providing essential clues for the subsequent investigations. The results evidenced the employment of natural lithotypes (calcareous sedimentary, dolomitic and volcanic) local and imported, and also artificial materials, such as ceramic made firing magnesium-rich clays, soda-lime-silica glasses made with different opacifying and coloring agents (such as calcium antimoniate, cobalt and copper).

Jebel Kareem (TH.68): Techno‐typological characteristics of a distinctive lithic assemblage from Dhofar, southern Oman

The lithic sample from TH.68 in Southern Oman is characterised by a set of techno‐typological features: (a) the variety of blank production strategies employed to produce flakes, blades and bladelets; (b) the level of standardisation of tools, including backed bladelets, end scrapers, burins on truncation, unifacial and bifacial plano‐convex points, etc.; and (c) a previously unknown technique that produced specific flakes presenting uniform morphological traits and high incidence of retouch. Here a comprehensive account of the lithic production systems employed by prehistoric human bands and the formal retouched tools that they made is provided.

Use-wear analysis of the lithic assemblage from LGM Mohelno-Plevovce site (southern Moravia, Czech Republic)

The Mohelno-Plevovce site, located in Moravia (Czech Republic), has yielded two stone structures that represent the remains of two different short occupations. The chronology of these occupations situates them in the midst of the Last Glacial Maximum, and the techno-typological features of the lithic assemblages link them with the recently defined ‘Epi-Aurignacian with Sagaidak–Muralovka-type microliths’. High power use-wear analysis of representative lithic samples from the two stone structures has been carried out to understand site function and the particular uses made of the different tool types represented at the site. The results of the use-wear analysis are used to test whether these occupations represent the archaeological signatures of pioneer populations that reoccupied the Moravia region, which had previously been abandoned by human populations due to the climatic hardships of the Last Glacial Maximum.

Starch contamination landscapes in field archaeology: Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

No agreement on what constitutes a safe and reproducible anticontamination protocol exists for ancient starch research. Protocols applied to laboratory work may represent ‘symptomatic treatment’ only, as contamination of archaeological materials in the field may be more extensive than realized. This paper is the first systematic study on the impact that modern starches from surface and buried soils, windborne dispersal, human motion, excavation techniques and toolkits, and field attire has on archaeological sample quality. The study area is Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. We identify seven starch types (discrete granules, n = 788) that embody the starch contamination landscape for the region. This study also demonstrates the various diagenetic changes that buried starch granules undergo in a short time, such as cavitation, fissuring, disruption and gelatinization. There are significant differences in morphotype class representation between the topsoil starches and those collected deeper below ground at excavated sites. Diagenetically transformed granules from underground storage organs dominate in soils, while native starches from cereal endosperm (Panicoideae and Triticeae) abound above ground in airborne samples. Furthermore, we illustrate how lithic samples excavated under standard field conditions can be contaminated, and that when a sample is compromised during excavation, it may be impossible to distinguish between target and introduced starches, especially when granules are identical or morphologically similar. The paper provides field recommendations to control false positives.

The other stone. Dacite quarries and workshops in the prehispanic Tarascan territory, Michoacán, Mexico

Due to its sheer abundance and informative potential, Mesoamerican archaeology tends to focus on obsidian as a mineral resource. As a result, other volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite, or dacite have received much less attention. In the highlands of Mesoamerica, knapped tools from the latter raw materials are generally perceived to stem from local resources from which they were procured by simple surface collection. The extensive dacite quarry-workshops of Las Lajitas and La Tronconera in Northern Michoacán represent thus an unprecedented discovery. In this paper, we examine from the quarry-workshop perspective how dacite was a crucial resource for the economy of pre-Tarascan and Tarascan societies from the Early Classic period to the Postclassic period (350–1450CE). Dacite was central to an integrated production system for the large-scale manufacture of normalized knapped tools, which operated in the same way as at major obsidian deposits in Mesoamerica. The fieldwork with methodical Global Positioning System (GPS) and total station surveying brought to light numerous zones of lithic waste accumulation, some of which extend over several hectares. They are located on a lava flow identified as dacitic from a petrographic and chemical viewpoint. Topographic depressions correspond to open extraction pits alongside areas reserved for debitage. The techno-morphological characteristics of the lithic sample gathered in test units shows that production was mainly geared towards the normalized manufacture of large dome-shaped scraper-plane preforms, which were traded within the entire region.

Towards an understanding of the millennial variability of the West African Monsoon system: a combined palynological and geochemical approach

Unretouched bladelets are widely considered archetypes of ‘microlithic’ assemblages. These small tools are regarded as significant for understanding broader processes of technological miniaturization, especially when they occur in large numbers. However, a major obstacle to comparative analyses of unretouched bladelets is a lack of standardized methods to define and quantify them. Here, we use cluster analyses to test traditional typo-metric definitions for unretouched bladelets and asymmetry quotients to examine diachronic changes in their morphology. Lithic samples were taken from 5 layers dating to MIS 2 (c. 29–12 ka) at Sehonghong rockshelter in highland Lesotho. Our results show that typo-metric size cut-offs ‘misclassify’ the actual (cluster analysis) frequencies of unretouched bladelets in our samples by as much as 36%. The asymmetry quotients show wide-variation in bladelet morphologies driven more by changes in length and width than thickness. This wide variability in bladelet morphology matches the variability in bladelet cores seen in ongoing technological analyses at Sehonghong, indicating that the ‘high-costs’ of bladelet production were spread across a range of reduction strategies during MIS 2. Our results have important implications for considerations of technological homogeneity and heterogeneity during MIS 2, and in explanations for the decline of bladelet production at the end of MIS 2 in southern Africa. These results show the merits of contextual, statistical, and size-based approaches to defining and quantifying unretouched bladelets and for understanding their role within broader processes of technological miniaturization.

Cores, Core-scrapers, and Bladelet Production during the Lower Magdalenian Occupations of El Mirón Cave, Cantabrian Spain

Among the defining characteristics of the Cantabrian (Spain) Lower Magdalenian (19.2–17.5 cal kya), along with portable art works, are so-called “nucleiform endscrapers.” These small cores often display one or more regularized edges that could indicate a secondary function as scrapers. Although this has been demonstrated microscopically to be the case at some sites, it is generally not true in a large sample from Level 17, a massive Lower Magdalenian horizon in El Mirón Cave on the edge of the Cantabrian Cordillera. This study synthesizes lithic typology, technology, and microwear analysis of the Level 17 lithic sample. The results indicate that understanding the absolute versus relative abundance of core endscrapers is important to classifications of Lower Magdalenian lithic assemblages, particularly in terms of inter-site tool comparisons, understanding the relative abundance of tools in relation to debitage products, and the key role of bladelet production.

Aproximación al estudio arqueopetrológico de la industria lítica procedente del abrigo de La Roureda (Vilafranca, Els Ports, Castelló, País Valencià) [Archaeopetrological study of the lithic industry from “La Roureda” rockshelter

Archaeopetrological study of the lithic industry from “La Roureda” rockshelter (Vilafranca, Els Ports, Castellon, Valencian Country) Roureda’s (La Roureda) rockshelter is an Epimagdalenian site located in Vilafranca (northern Valencian Country) in the east of the Iberian Peninsula. The site was discovered by Dr. F. Arasa in the late 1970s. More recently, two vertical trenches were dug at this site to determine the sequence of occupations over time: a 2 m 2 trench on the rock shelter floor and a 1 m 2 trench on the eroded area under the platform. The excavation of the 2 m 2 in the rock shelter outlined an Early Epimagdalenian level dated to 11350 ± 50 BP (13373-13122 cal. BP). One of the main features in this site is the abundant lithic industry recovered (4639 pieces), all of it made exclusively from chert. In recent years, the typology and technology of these materials has been studied but this is the first archaeopetrological study, not only for this site but for this region of Iberia. Among the stone tools, backed bladelets are the most significant typological group, followed by the truncated bladelets and the group of notched-denticulates. End-scrapers and pieces with retouched edges are also important. The remaining groups represent less than 3%. The archaeopetrological study has been divided into two parts. Firstly, a macroscopic approach (petrographic and micropalaeontologic) was developed for all the retouched tools (286), the production blanks (2459) and cores (20). It should be note that during the excavations, 4639 elements were recovered, but about 45% of these being debris. Secondly, geological surveys were developed, which allowed for the identification of several outcrops with cherts within a 100 km area around the site. Several samples of those cherts were microscopically compared to some of the archaeological lithic samples. The results of these analyses allow for the identification of the presence of 4 different varieties of chert, with a primarily brackish or lacustrine origin. Two of them (Types A & B) corresponding to a palustrine environment formation, one (Type D) related to a marine environment formation, and finally, one (Type C) being undefined. Two of these varieties, the most abundant in the site (Types A and B) may be related to several outcrops located both in a local and regional distance. Meanwhile, Types C and D are much less abundant. The nearest varieties of chert to the site (Types A & B), which are of high quality for knapping and relatively homogenous, were the most common in the Epimagdalenian level. These types showed all stages of the “Chaine Operatoire Lithique” (C.O.L.) within the site. Nevertheless, a distinction can be observed between them. While Type A was used mainly for projectiles and in a lesser way for domestic tools, Type B was mainly used in the opposite way (mainly having been used for domestic tools). The explanation will likely be related to the homogeneity of their textural differences. On the other hand, neither Type C nor Type D showed the complete sequence of the C.O.L. The first was probably introduced into the site mainly as knapped blades or bladelets, while Type D, the lowest in quality, was mainly used for domestic purposes. It was not possible to locate the outcrop of type C. Nevertheless, the outcrops of Type D are relatively abundant and in spite of its quality for knapping, this chert was frequently used. Outcrops of this type of chert can be found throughout the region. The aim of this project in the near future is to enlarge this study to other Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites and develop a deeper knowledge of the siliceous outcrops used by hunter-gatherer populations in this region. This is a project of great relevance, not only for understanding the economy of raw materials at the Roureda rockshelter, but also for knowing the possibilities of chert trade in northern Valencian Country.

Contextual approaches to studying unretouched bladelets: A late Pleistocene case study at Sehonghong Rockshelter, Lesotho

Unretouched bladelets are widely considered archetypes of ‘microlithic’ assemblages. These small tools are regarded as significant for understanding broader processes of technological miniaturization, especially when they occur in large numbers. However, a major obstacle to comparative analyses of unretouched bladelets is a lack of standardized methods to define and quantify them. Here, we use cluster analyses to test traditional typo-metric definitions for unretouched bladelets and asymmetry quotients to examine diachronic changes in their morphology. Lithic samples were taken from 5 layers dating to MIS 2 (c. 29–12 ka) at Sehonghong rockshelter in highland Lesotho. Our results show that typo-metric size cut-offs ‘misclassify’ the actual (cluster analysis) frequencies of unretouched bladelets in our samples by as much as 36%. The asymmetry quotients show wide-variation in bladelet morphologies driven more by changes in length and width than thickness. This wide variability in bladelet morphology matches the variability in bladelet cores seen in ongoing technological analyses at Sehonghong, indicating that the ‘high-costs’ of bladelet production were spread across a range of reduction strategies during MIS 2. Our results have important implications for considerations of technological homogeneity and heterogeneity during MIS 2, and in explanations for the decline of bladelet production at the end of MIS 2 in southern Africa. These results show the merits of contextual, statistical, and size-based approaches to defining and quantifying unretouched bladelets and for understanding their role within broader processes of technological miniaturization.

フィリピン・ルソン島南部，ブルサン火山2006-2007年噴火による降下火山灰

ルソン島南部のブルサン火山では，2006年に19回，2007年に7回の水蒸気噴火が発生した。それらの噴火によるテフラは，山頂火口の上空で西または南西方向に吹く卓越風に運ばれ，ソルソゴン半島の西部地域を覆った。いくつかのイベントでは，爆発地震が記録された。降下テフラの分布調査と試料採取ができた場合に，それらの噴出量の推計と構成物質の検討を行った。それぞれの降下テフラの体積は，得られた分布図から，およそ105 m3 の規模と推定された。火山灰の岩石記載的観察や蛍光X線分析では本質物質は検出されず，すべて水蒸気噴火によるものと結論づけられた。

Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence analysis of Haleakalā basalt adze quarry materials, Maui, Hawai‘i

One of Hawai‘i’s major prehistoric basalt adze quarries (SIHP 50-50-11-2510) is located in the summit region of Haleakalā, Maui. Situated at approximately 2750 m above sea level (9000 ft), the quarry shares a similar high-altitude setting with the Mauna Kea adze quarry on Hawai‘i Island. Adding to a growing Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) database for the Hawaiian Islands, we present the results from 255 geological and archaeological lithic samples from the Haleakalā quarry site. We also briefly discuss why this non-destructive XRF technique is particularly applicable in the Hawaiian cultural context.

The significance of MIS 5 shell middens on the Cape coast: A lithic perspective from Klasies River and Ysterfontein 1

In this paper, lithic assemblages from two MIS 5 middens on the Cape coast, Klasies River main site and Ysterfontein 1 are compared. Klasies River, on the southern Cape coast, has provided an abundant sample of stone artefacts from MIS 5, the MSA 1 and MSA 11 techno-complexes. Recent work at Ysterfontein site has yielded the largest lithic sample so far of a comparable age from the Cape west coast. The assemblages from Klasies River and Ysterfontein 1 represent three clearly discernable techno-complexes. At Klasies River, the MSA 1 or Klasies River techno-complex is characterized by a recurrent strategy to produce elongated products. This is followed by the MSA 11, also termed the Mossel Bay in which a strategy with unipolar convergent Levallois characteristics was followed. The MSA 1 and MSA 11 are different techno-complexes, even though the products are morphometrically somewhat similar. The Ysterfontein 1 techno-complex differs from the Klasies River MIS 5 assemblages in terms of in raw material composition, technology and dimensions of the flaked products. In the Ysterfontein 1 techno-complex, relatively short blades and flakes were produced from platform and two volume cores. Scrapers, notches and denticulates comprise the retouched component of all three assemblages. Insight into the technological capabilities of MIS 5 populations is important to understand subsequent techno-complexes such as the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort. The technical behavior of humans that lived around 100 000 years ago on the Cape coast is of more than parochial interest – cultural changes in all of Africa in MIS 5 provide a window into sapient cognitive and adaptive conventions.

A Preisach method for estimating absolute paleofield intensity under the constraint of using only isothermal measurements: 2. Experimental testing

[1] This paper reports an empirical test of a new nonheating Preisach-based protocol for determining the absolute ancient magnetic field intensity (paleointensity) using a selection of synthetic samples and a large suite of modern lavas and pyroclastic lithic samples. Generally, the Preisach paleointensity estimates compare favorably with the expected field intensities: (1) for the synthetic samples displaying single-domain-like behavior, the method returned the correct result for the known field, while multidomain samples yielded an underestimate, and (2) averaging 168 post-1850 A.D. lavas yielded a value <6% within the expected field value. These Preisach paleointensity estimates are also compared with paleointensity determinations made on the same suite of samples using standard Thellier-type heating protocols and the nonheating remanence (REM) method. The Preisach paleointensity estimates compare favorably for samples that yielded correct Thellier-type determinations, including the synthetic single-domain-like samples. In addition, the Preisach method produced estimates for cases where the Thellier-type estimates failed. A possible selection criterion was identified (median destructive field), which was found to improve the paleointensity estimates in some sample suites. For the investigated sample set the Preisach method was found to be much more accurate than the REM method. The importance of cooling rate on the Preisach paleointensity estimate is also examined.

The effects of surface weathering on the geochemical analysis of archaeological lithic samples using non‐destructive polarized energy dispersive XRF

AbstractThe purpose of this paper is to show the effects of lithic artifact surface weathering on whole rock non‐destructive polarized energy dispersive X‐ray fluorescence (P‐ED‐XRF) major and trace element determinations. Chemical results for a weathered and subsequently mechanically ground subset of New Hampshire Ossipee archaeological flakes, cataloged as hornfels, show that both groups of elements are variably affected by weathering. A graphic approach is developed and proposed to highlight the role and importance of immobile elements. A case is made and an analytical method is proposed for the routine use of P‐ED‐XRF spectrometers to determine the chemical makeup of lithic artifacts and therefore provide a data set compatible with existing geochemical databases and literature. The use of specific variation diagrams is adopted to portray the weathering trend. Internationally approved geochemical rock type diagrams are used to correct the rock type previously assigned to Ossipee artifacts and in turn narrow down potential quarry sources. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

New insights into hominin lithic activities at FLK North Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

Recent work at FLK North (FLK N) has unearthed a new archaeological assemblage recovered with precise control of its stratigraphic position. In the present work, the technological study of the new lithic sample is described. The results show the co-occurrence in the same site of different technological behaviors. At FLK N, hominins were involved in both percussion/battering activities and, through freehand and bipolar knapping, in core reduction. However, the reconstruction of the operational sequences shows that core reduction was probably a marginal behavior, while percussion/battering activities occurred more regularly throughout the sequence. If hominins were not involved in regular carcass processing, as recent taphonomic studies suggest, then hominins' sporadic and low-impact visits to the site over a long period of time must have been driven by other activities probably linked to the exploitation of alternative resources. Plant processing could have been a plausible explanation for hominin presence at FLK N.

The 74 ka Toba super-eruption and southern Indian hominins: archaeology, lithic technology and environments at Jwalapuram Locality 3

Hominins living in southern India 74,000 years ago faced a deteriorating environment, as the global climate moved from interglacial into full glacial conditions. At the same time, South Asian populations witnessed the widespread deposition of tephra from the Sumatran Toba super-eruption, the largest explosive volcanic event of the past two million years. Here we report new data on the lithic technology and environmental context for a southern Indian site with hominin occupation in association with Toba tephra deposits: Jwalapuram Locality 3 in the Jurreru Valley. Sedimentological and isotopic studies demonstrate that a cooling trend was in effect in this part of southern India prior to the eruption, and that thick deposits of ash in the Jurreru Valley supported grassland communities before more wooded conditions were re-established. Detailed technological analyses of an expanded lithic sample from Locality 3 suggest cultural continuity after the eruptive event, and comparisons with lithic core technologies elsewhere indicate that Homo sapiens cannot be ruled out as the creator of these Middle Palaeolithic assemblages.

A model for fibrous illite nucleation and growth in sandstones

We have developed a model for the formation of fibrous illite in sandstones where kaolinite is a primary reactant and potassium is derived from in-situ K-feldspar grain dissolution or imported into the model reference frame. Illite fiber nucleation and growth are modeled using Arrhenius expressions that consider saturation state in addition to temperature and time. Nucleation occurs on pore walls, and muscovite and detrital illite may be defined as energetically favorable substrates. The model is integrated with other Touchstone™ models to account for the influence of other diagenetic processes on surface area and reactant volumes and to provide input for permeability simulations. We evaluated the illite model performance on two data sets: (1) Jurassic quartzose samples from offshore mid-Norway with maximum temperatures ranging from 108 to 173C (226 to 343F) and (2) Miocene lithic samples from offshore Southeast Asia that have maximum temperatures ranging from 157 to 182C (315 to 360F). The model matches measured abundances of illite, kaolinite, and K-feldspar in both data sets using identical kinetic parameters. Predicted K-Ar ages are consistent with available data given uncertainties associated with detrital contaminants. Although no illite particle-size data are available from the analyzed samples, modeled crystallite thicknesses from the Norway data set are comparable to published measurements of 0.004 to 0.012 m from North Sea samples with similar temperature histories.

The Middle to Later Stone Age Technological Transition in East Africa. New Data from Mumba Rockshelter Bed V (Tanzania) and their Implications for the Origin of Modern Human Behavior

Recent re-excavation of Mumba Rockshelter unearthed an unbiased lithic sample from Bed V. Technological analysis has permitted a reinterpretation of the so-called Mumba Industry, a transitional industry between Middle and Later Stone Ages originally defined by Mehlman (1989). Our data confirm Mehlman’s observation that the “evolutionary” markers in Mumba Bed V are basically typological. However, our study differs from his in that we classify all of Bed V as LSA based on the combined analyses of typology and technology in our excavated assemblage. From a technological perspective, no changes have been observed throughout the sequence, and continuity is the main technological characteristic of the series. The only transitional marker from Lower through Upper Bed V is the appearance of the geometric crescent in the latter, taking into account that microliths exist throughout the sequence. This evidence casts some doubts on previous interpretations and underscores the need to recover a larger sample using modern excavation techniques. It also stresses the need to define the MSA/LSA transition in better terms, combining techno-typological criteria.