Liquid Endosperm Research Articles

Coconut: Expanding avenues in processing and an exposition on non-conventional value-added products.

Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is a treasured tree of the tropics, with every part put to use. The edible portions are loaded with diverse nutrients and nutraceutical ingredients. While the unique mineral profile of the liquid endosperm, the low-glycemic inflorescence sap (neera) and the medium-chain triglyceride fraction of coconut oil are better recognized, other fractions such as the haustorium remain underexplored. Overall, it is evident that, globally, the present status of coconut value addition is conventional, limited to a handful of products, and novel products hold a promising scope. A massive fraction of global coconut production goes for culinary and religious purposes. In the article, value-added products from coconut are classified into conventional and non-conventional products, with the latter in focus. Based on the part from which it is collected, all products have been categorized as haustorium-based, inflorescence-based, kernel-based and water-based products. For each non-conventional product introduced, its production approach and unique application range are highlighted. Given its health-promoting capabilities, characteristic sensorial attributes, wide application range and technological advancements, coconuts are increasingly being recognized around the world, even in regions that do not cultivate them; this applies to non-food products as well. In the context of value-added products from coconuts, this decade has witnessed a surge in research and commercial interest considering the inclusion of coconut as an ingredient in several food and nutraceutical products. The future will certainly consider regulatory protocols and standards, better documentation of the health impact of coconut-based diets, and the sustainability of coconut production, processing and consumption. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Efficacy of coconut liquid endosperm as natural agent inhibiting browning and maintaining quality of fresh-cut mature mangoes by comparison with cysteine

The use of natural substances to preserve the freshness of fresh-cut products has been receiving a lot of attention recently. The aim of the present work was to determine the efficacy of coconut liquid endosperm (CLE) immersion on browning retardation and quality maintenance of fresh-cut mature green mangoes by using ‘Kaew Kamin’ mango as fresh-cut fruit model compared with cysteine (Cys) immersion during refrigeration at 4°C. In the preliminary investigation, the treatment of CLE or Cys retarded the colour change ( hue angle) and browning development during refrigeration. The optimal concentrations of CLE and Cys were 100 and 1.5%, respectively. Compared with untreated samples (100% CLE), 1.5% Cys and Cys + CLE immersions maintained firmness, superficial colour, and visual appearance, as well as inhibited the browning and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity of the fresh-cut mangoes. Interestingly, Cys immersion enhanced antioxidant activity and the total phenolic compounds of the fresh-cut mangoes. The total phenolic content of the fresh-cut mangoes was unaffected by CLE immersion. Compared to Cys, CLE is a natural substance that prevents browning, and maintains the freshness of fresh-cut mature green mangoes throughout refrigeration.

Effects of indole butyric acid and coconut liquid endosperm on rooting of Crateva adansonii stem

Indole butyric acid (IBA) and coconut liquid endosperm (CLE), two rooting agents, were tested in three concentrations to see how they affected the rooting of Crateva adansonii DC stem cuttings. 300 mg/L, 200 mg/L, and 100 mg/L (IBA) of rooting material and 100%, 80%, and 60% of CLE were the concentrations that were assessed. This was done in three replications using completely randomized design (CRD). The setup, which lasted six months, was on exhibit in the Botanic Garden at the Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. While control stem cuttings took the longest to start and finish bud break on the stem cuttings, higher concentrations of the rooting chemical substances, 300 mg/L IBA and 100 percent CLE respectively, influenced the shortest times (initial and final). The results showed that the control had the fewest buds that sprouted into leaves, whereas 300 mg/L IBA and 100 percent CLE had the highest percentage of buds that turned into leaves on the stem cuttings. Regardless of the treatment concentrations utilized, a thin callus formed on the stem cuttings. Observations on rooting revealed that not all callused stem cuttings subsequently took root. IBA and CLE were applied to stem cuttings in various concentrations, and the results were seedlings with lateral and feeding roots. The maximum percentage of rooting response was seen in stem cuttings treated with 300 mg/L IBA and 100 percent CLE, respectively, while the control did not root. The findings of measuring the aerial and sub aerial growth characteristics of seedlings revealed that 300 mg/L IBA and 100 percent CLE had a greater impact on the development of higher values of the growth parameters examined than cuttings treated with lower concentrations of the two rooting agents. Based on the findings of this study, it is possible to draw the conclusion that C. adansonii can be multiplied vegetatively by using rooting agents to help stem cuttings take root. It is recommended that more research be done using rooting medium with a higher concentration and rooting agents like auxins at different concentrations.

Molecular mechanism of quality changes in solid endosperm of tender coconut during room temperature storage based on transcriptome and metabolome

Tender coconut (TC) is popular around the world. Postharvest storage of TC leads to a decline in its appearance quality and flavor in both liquid endosperm (LE) and solid endosperm (SE). While LE is the most consumed part and remains in a liquid state, SE is the only cellular tissue directly connected to LE and may be the main contributor to flavor deterioration during storage. This study focused on investigating SE changes during TC storage at 25 °C using computed tomographic technology, transcriptome and metabolome analyses. The results showed increased thickness and density, elevated protein and fat contents, and decreased reducing and soluble sugars in SE of TC during storage. Integrated transcriptome and metabolome analysis revealed that these changes were mainly associated with the gene transcription levels involved in amino acid, carbohydrate and lipid metabolisms, along with specific metabolites. These findings offer valuable insights for controlling TC quality during storage.

Changes in Relative Proportions of Plant Growth Regulators in the Liquid Endosperm during Seed Development in Coconut Cultivars/Hybrids

Changes in Relative Proportions of Plant Growth Regulators in the Liquid Endosperm during Seed Development in Coconut Cultivars/Hybrids

Untargeted Metabolomics Analysis of Liquid Endosperm of Cocos nucifera L. at Three Stages of Maturation Evidenced Differences in Metabolic Regulation

Cocos nucifera L. is one of the most cultivated palm trees in the world since it is used to obtain both raw materials and food. From a human point of view, the coconut fruit is a very valuable product, producing an aromatic and tasty liquid endosperm (coconut water) containing high levels of sugars, amino acids and other molecules of nutritional and nutraceutical value. Most of the chemical composition studies conducted on coconut to date have focused on the determination of fatty acid content in coconut oil and the extension of the shelf life of coconut water. Despite the economic importance of this species, the maturation of the coconut fruit is a complex biological process scarcely studied from the metabolic approach and biochemical changes occurring during fruit maturation are not well-known. The objective of this study is to investigate and elucidate the metabolic changes that occur during the maturation process of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) fruits, specifically focusing on the liquid endosperm of the Yucatan green dwarf variety. In this study, the liquid endosperm of coconut fruits at the immature, intermediate and mature stages have been analyzed through an untargeted metabolomics approach by ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS). A total of 591 spectrometric features were detected and the corresponding identified compounds were classified into 24 chemical classes. The principal component analysis (PCA) showed segregation among the samples, according to their stage of maturation. Most of the metabolites detected were related to the metabolism of flavonoids, carbohydrates and organooxygen compounds. Pathway analysis showed that sphingolipid, starch and sucrose metabolisms were among the most over-accumulated during ripening, followed by the metabolism of glyoxylates and dicarboxylates and the metabolism of amino acids such as alanine, aspartate and glutamate, and others. This is the first study that focuses on elucidating the metabolic profiles of the liquid endosperm of coconut Yucatan green dwarf variety during three stages of maturation with an untargeted metabolomics approach through UPLC-MS.

Safety Assessment of Cocos nucifera (Coconut)-Derived Ingredients as Used in Cosmetics.

The Expert Panel for Cosmetic Ingredient Safety (Panel) assessed the safety of 11 Cocos nucifera (coconut)-derived ingredients, most of which are reported to function as skin-conditioning agents in cosmetic products. The Panel reviewed the available data to determine the safety of these ingredients. The Panel concluded that 10 ingredients, derived from coconut flower, fruit, and liquid endosperm, are safe in cosmetics in the present practices of use and concentration described in this safety assessment, and that the available data are insufficient to make a determination of safety for Cocos Nucifera (Coconut) Shell Powder under the intended conditions of use in cosmetic formulations.

Visualization and quantification of coconut using advanced computed tomography postprocessing technology.

Computed tomography (CT) is a non-invasive examination tool that is widely used in medicine. In this study, we explored its value in visualizing and quantifying coconut. Twelve coconuts were scanned using CT for three months. Axial CT images of the coconuts were obtained using a dual-source CT scanner. In postprocessing process, various three-dimensional models were created by volume rendering (VR), and the plane sections of different angles were obtained through multiplanar reformation (MPR). The morphological parameters and the CT values of the exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp, embryo, bud, solid endosperm, liquid endosperm, and coconut apple were measured. The analysis of variances was used for temporal repeated measures and linear and non-linear regressions were used to analyze the relationship between the data. The MPR images and VR models provide excellent visualization of the different structures of the coconut. The statistical results showed that the weight of coconut and liquid endosperm volume decreased significantly during the three months, while the CT value of coconut apple decreased slightly. We observed a complete germination of a coconut, its data showed a significant negative correlation between the CT value of the bud and the liquid endosperm volume (y = -2.6955x + 244.91; R2 = 0.9859), and a strong positive correlation between the height and CT value of the bud (y = 1.9576 ln(x) -2.1655; R2 = 0.9691). CT technology can be used for visualization and quantitative analysis of the internal structure of the coconut, and some morphological changes and composition changes of the coconut during the germination process were observed during the three-month experiment. Therefore, CT is a potential tool for analyzing coconuts.

Green synthesis and Characterisation of Silver Nanoparticles from liquid endosperm of Coconut, Palm fruit and Coconut toddy and it’s Antibacterial Activity

Nanoparticles are molecules in the range of 1 nm to 100 nm and they can be synthesized by physical, chemical and biological methods. Green synthesis involves the production of nanoparticles from bacteria, fungi, algae, plants and plant extracts. Plant extracts with their chemical constituents can capture the target metals from their salt solution and transform the metal particles into nanoparticles with the cellular catalysts. The present study focuses on the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using the liquid endosperm of coconut, the coconut water (Cocos nucifera), Liquid endosperm of palm fruit (Borassus flabellifer) and coconut Toddy as the reducing agent. The bio-reduction of aqueous silver ions by coconut water is identified by its colour change. During the synthesis of silver nanoparticles, the colour of the solution changed from milky white to brown. The characterization of synthesized AgNPs (Silver Nanoparticles) was done by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and UV-Vis Spectroscopy. The peaks obtained at 250 and 350 nm confirmed the presence of synthesized Silver Nanoparticles. The antibacterial activity of the synthesized nanoparticles was studied on Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes using disc diffusion method. The recent approach of green synthesis is quite impressive due to its eco- friendly, economical, feasible and non- toxic nature.

GC-MS-based metabolomics reveals dynamic changes in the nutritionally important metabolites in coconut meat during nut maturation

Coconut is an economically important tropical palm fruit. Among various coconut products, the endosperm (coconut meat) is a rich source of several nutritionally rich metabolites.The coconut fruit typically takes 10–12 months to attain commercial maturity. Although metabolite profile of coconut meat vary during nut development and maturation because of transformation of liquid endosperm into solid endosperm, there are as such no reports describing the real dynamics of these changes. Therefore, in this work, we applied gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)-based metabolomics technology to identify the alteration in the metabolite levels during nut development. Metabolite profile was carried out from 'Chowghat Orange Dwarf ' (COD) and 'Malayan YellowDwarf' (MYD) varieties of coconut at three critical nut development stages. We identified a total of 43 and 40 metabolites from 'COD' and 'MYD', variety, respectively. By employing the partial least squares-discriminant analysis we identified specific fatty acids as important biomarker metabolites for actual prediction of nut maturity stages. These results show several patterns of variation in metabolite composition and level, especially in the primary metabolites, during the process of nut maturation. These fundamental metabolomic profile data will be very useful for understanding the appropriate nut maturity stages and their corresponding nutritional value.

Relative abundance of PGRs in the liquid endosperm of young nuts of Cocos nucifera L. parental cultivars and their reciprocal hybrids

Relative abundance of PGRs in the liquid endosperm of young nuts of Cocos nucifera L. parental cultivars and their reciprocal hybrids

Flavor deterioration of liquid endosperm in postharvest tender coconut revealed by LC-MS-based metabolomics, GC-IMS and E-tongue

LC-MS-based non-targeted metabolomics, GC-IMS and E-tongue were employed to study the dynamical changes of the liquid endosperm, normally known as coconut water (CW), in postharvest coconut matured 8 months after full bloom. A total of 61 compounds was identified as differential metabolites responsible for metabolic changes during the whole storage (35 d at 25 ℃) using UPLC-MS/MS, whereas 8 volatiles were considered as the main components contributed to odor deterioration by GC-IMS. E-tongue data showed that bitterness response of CW was enhanced during storage, which was consistent with the variation of some bitter amino acids and epicatechin, while sweetness, sourness and umami exhibited an increased tendency except a decrease at 7 d due to the alteration of phenolic, amino acid, sugar and nucleotide. Postharvest storage displayed a distinct metabolic signature characterized by increased amino acid, nucleotide and sugar metabolisms. These results provided some new insights for biochemical changes of CW inside the postharvest coconuts.

Nutrient Medium Composition Optimization to Obtain Seed Progeny of Phalaenopsis (Phalaenopsis × Hybridum Blume)

Seed propagation of phalaenopsis is carried out by sowing seeds on artificial nutrient media. In the work, the influence of the basic composition of the nutrient medium, the addition of liquid endosperm of coconut, activated carbon, growth regulators and sucrose concentration on the germination of seeds and the effectiveness of the formation of seed progeny plants was studied. The best result was obtained by cultivating seeds on a B5 nutrient medium supplemented with 35 g/l of sucrose and 7 g/l of agar and amounted to 92.1% of germination and 34.4% of mature plants.

Effect of microwave heating on physico-chemical characteristics of coconut water

Coconut water (Cococus Nucifera. L) is the clear liquid present inside a coconut liquid endosperm. This water is subjected to microbial contamination and degrades while exposed to ambient air. In general, thermal methods are mostly used in the preservation of liquid foods. In this study, the coconut water was collected from 8-10 months old harvested coconut. Microwave power levels of 540 W, 720 W, and 900 Whavebeen used to treat the coconut water with different exposure times. The treated coconut water was filled in PET bottles and stored at cool temperature (4 °C) and room temperature (27 °C). It is observed that microwave treated 540 W, 720 W, and 900 W coconut water has maintained the quality during the storage period. The physico-chemical properties of microwave-treated coconut water includecolor, pH, TSS, acidity, and reducing sugar on 15days of storage was measured as 13.18 to 15;5.4 to 4.8; 4.5 to 6.0;0.07 to 0.30; and 1.8 to 3.3% respectively.

Browning inhibition on fresh-cut apple by the immersion of liquid endosperm from mature coconuts.

The application of natural antibrowning agents for fresh-cut products has been recently considered. This study manifested the efficiency of coconut liquid endosperm, coconut water (CW), from mature tall (cooking) coconut (C-CW) and yellow dwarf coconut (Y-CW) on browning inhibition of 'Gala' apple wedges during storage at 4 ± 1°C for 9days. The apple wedges were immersed in water (control), C-CW or Y-CW for 1min. The visual appearance, superficial colour attributes, browning pigment concentration, total phenols concentration, polyphenoloxidase (PPO) activity and reducing antioxidant capacity of apple wedges were monitored. Moreover, antioxidant activity of both C-CW and Y-CW was also observed. Antioxidant activity of Y-CW was higher than that of C-CW. Both of the CW immersions maintained visual appearance, whiteness and lightness values as well as delayed the increased yellowness and brownness values of hypanthium (flesh) and mesocarp (core) of apple wedges. The browning pigment concentration and PPO activity were obviously lowered by both CW immersions. Total phenols concentration and antioxidant activity of C-CW and Y-CW immersed apple wedges were higher than those of control samples. In conclusion, both of the mature coconut liquid endosperms are feasible natural agent inhibiting browning incidence of fresh-cut fruits during storage.

Non-conventional pathways enable pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) embryos to achieve high efficiency of oil biosynthesis.

Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) accumulates oil up to 35% of the total seed biomass, and its overall fatty acid composition is suitable for aviation fuel. However, for this plant to become economically viable, its oil production needs to be improved. In vivo culture conditions that resemble the development of pennycress embryos in planta were developed based on the composition of the liquid endosperm. Then, substrate uptake rates and biomass accumulation were measured from cultured pennycress embryos, revealing a biosynthetic efficiency of 93%, which is one of the highest in comparison with other oilseeds to date. Additionally, the ratio of carbon in oil to CO2 indicated that non-conventional pathways are likely to be responsible for such a high carbon conversion efficiency. To identify the reactions enabling this phenomenon, parallel labeling experiments with 13C-labeled substrates were conducted in pennycress embryos. The main findings of these labeling experiments include: (i) the occurrence of the oxidative reactions of the pentose phosphate pathway in the cytosol; (ii) the reversibility of isocitrate dehydrogenase; (iii) the operation of the plastidic NADP-dependent malic enzyme; and (iv) the refixation of CO2 by Rubisco. These reactions are key providers of carbon and reductant for fatty acid synthesis and elongation.

Nutritional assessment study and role of green silver nanoparticles in shelf-life of coconut endosperm to develop as functional food.

Tender coconut water is a pure and nutritious drink which play important role as nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals contributes to the rapid growth of the functional food industry. In the mean-time the safety and shelf-life of the food is crucial for the both product as well as consumers. The intervention or application of nanotechnology gives immense a solution for the prolonged sustainability of the food products. This work reports on the nature of physiological changes of coconut liquid endosperm along with the interaction of its DNA with green route synthesized Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) using Garuga pinnata leaf, an important ethnomedicinal plant. The physical and nutritional study of the coconut water were carried by UV–visible, XRD, NMR analysis whereas the synthesized Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) were characterized by UV–Visible spectrophotometer, Raman Spectroscopy, DLS, AFM and FE-SEM analysis. The pH of the endosperm was found to decrease from 6.31 to 4.01, following an exponential decay trend and giving a decay constant of ~8.8 h. The broad absorption peak at ~310 nm gradually turns featureless with elapse of time. The proton nuclear magnetic resonance (H1-NMR) spectrum essentially revealed the presence of esters or organic acids, confirming a sudden fall in the rate of intensity in the immature coconut endosperms as compared to the matured coconut cases. While the pentosyl methyl group (~1.4–1.5 ppm) concentration is observably lowered, free amino acid (~1 ppm) is apparently suppressed in the former specimen. Gel electrophoresis of 10 kb DNA with Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) showed a gradual decrease of band intensity for a concentration varying between 3:1 and 1:1. The less intense band was due to the lack of migration of DNA into the micropores of the gel as a consequence of interaction of negatively charged DNA with negatively charged AgNPs. The study of DNA interaction with AgNPs could help identifying and addressing the nature of degradation process while considering prevention from microbial attack and make the coconut water as potential functional food entity.

Analysis of Sugars and Fatty Acids during Haustorium Development and Seedling Growth of Coconut

Haustorium absorbs energy from the endosperms (liquid and solid) and plays a key role in nutrient mobilization during coconut germination and seedling growth. This study was conducted to shed light on possible interactions between haustorium and endosperms during this process. Germination rates and morphological changes of coconut cultivars Hainan Tall (HT) and Red Dwarf (RD), as well as the profiles of sugars and fatty acids in endosperms and haustorium were also analyzed. Results showed that liquid and solid endosperm inside the coconut exhausts successively, while haustorium occupies the nut gradually. Haustorium had significant positive correlation with seedling, while it had significant negative correlation with liquid and solid endosperms. Sugars in liquid endosperm continuously decreased, whereas in solid endosperm and haustorium accumulated at early stages and decreased later along with the aggressive seedling growth. Fatty acids in solid endosperm shared a very similar trend with sugars. In conclusion, haustorium development and seedling growth mainly depend on the nutrients stored in the liquid endosperm at early stages and then depend on the solid endosperm, in which fatty acids degrade rapidly to sugar so as to provide enough energy. These findings could be applicable in coconut germination and seedling propagation.Core Ideas Relative cool season (25–29°C) is more suitable for coconut germination and local variety (HT) is more adaptable. Development mainly depends on stored nutrients in liquid endosperm at early stages and then on solid endosperm. Fatty acids in solid endosperm degrade rapidly to sugars since liquid endosperm almost exhausted. Conversion of fatty acids to sugars helps provide enough energy for rapidly growing haustorium and seedling.

Prior physicochemical stress exposures and subsequent UV-C resistance of E. coli O157:H7 in coconut liquid endosperm

This study determined the effects of prior exposures to individual acid, desiccation, and heat stress, and all their possible simultaneous combinations, on the subsequent ultraviolet-C (UV-C) inactivation kinetics of E. coli O157:H7 in a coconut liquid endosperm suspending medium. Sublethal injury rates determined in the cells after stress exposure and acclimation in the suspending medium ranged from 0.00% (acid stressed) to 84.24% (desiccation+heat stressed). Regardless of the previous stress to which cells were exposed, a logarithmic linear inactivation behavior was observed in the cells. The decimal reduction energy (DUV-C) of the stressed cells ranged from 152.17mJ/cm2 (acid+desiccation+heat stressed) to 209.81mJ/cm2 (acid+heat stressed). No apparent relationship was observed between % injury and DUV-C values possibly because the nature of the injury the cells incurred after exposures to the stresses was not determined. Cells previously exposed to the combined acid and heat stress exhibited the highest D ratio (DUV-C stressed/ DUV-C control), indicative of heterologous adaptation that resulted in cells 30% more resistant towards UV-C. The results established in this study contribute in further understanding the utility and limitations of UV-C radiation as an alternative nonthermal processing technique for fruit juices.

The Soybean Sugar Transporter GmSWEET15 Mediates Sucrose Export from Endosperm to Early Embryo.

Soybean (Glycine max) seed is primarily composed of a mature embryo that provides a major source of protein and oil for humans and other animals. Early in development, the tiny embryos grow rapidly and acquire large quantities of sugars from the liquid endosperm of developing seeds. An insufficient supply of nutrients from the endosperm to the embryo results in severe seed abortion and yield reduction. Hence, an understanding of the molecular basis and regulation of assimilate partitioning involved in early embryo development is important for improving soybean seed yield and quality. Here, we used expression profiling analysis to show that two paralogous sugar transporter genes from the SWEET (Sugars Will Eventually be Exported Transporter) family, GmSWEET15a and GmSWEET15b, were highly expressed in developing soybean seeds. In situ hybridization and quantitative real-time PCR showed that both genes were mainly expressed in the endosperm at the cotyledon stage. GmSWEET15b showed both efflux and influx activities for sucrose in Xenopus oocytes. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), knockout of three AtSWEET alleles is required to see a defective, but not lethal, embryo phenotype, whereas knockout of both GmSWEET15 genes in soybean caused retarded embryo development and endosperm persistence, resulting in severe seed abortion. In addition, the embryo sugar content of the soybean knockout mutants was greatly reduced. These results demonstrate that the plasma membrane sugar transporter, GmSWEET15, is essential for embryo development in soybean by mediating Suc export from the endosperm to the embryo early in seed development.