Liquefaction Susceptibility Map Research Articles

The Preliminary Study of Liquefaction Susceptibility Map in the Yogyakarta-Bawen Toll Road Sections I and II, Indonesia

The parts of Yogyakarta-Bawen Toll Road Indonesia, based on the geological agency’s liquefaction susceptibility map are located on moderately susceptible to liquefaction soil. This map can be a preliminary indication of liquefaction as it can roughly indicate liquefaction potential. However, it cannot illustrate the actual condition in detail as its inputs are macro parameters (geological and seismicity factors). The existence of silty sand and sand, earthquake sources, and shallow groundwater increase the liquefaction possibility to occur in this important national project. Therefore, the Liquefaction Severity Index (LSI) and the Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI) using Sonmez’s and Iwasaki’s analysis methods are conducted with peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.322 g for the first section and in the second section 0.298 g. The results of the three types of analysis have relatively similar trends but the differences are in each category. The LSI’s categories are very low-moderate in the observed location, meanwhile, the LPI’s categories are low-very high.

GIS based urban social vulnerability assessment for liquefaction susceptible areas: a case study for greater Chennai, India

BackgroundThe areas prone to geological hazards such as liquefaction need special attention with respect to social vulnerability. Though liquefaction by itself may not result in damage, it may trigger a series of ground failures such as ground oscillation, lateral spread, loss of bearing strength, etc., which cause heavy damage. Globally, during the past few decades liquefaction hazard analysis has become one of the important criteria in seismic risk analysis and mitigation management, especially for urban areas. Greater Chennai is one of the million-plus population cities in India. The city also felt earthquakes/tremors in the past history.MethodThe present study aims to assess the social vulnerability of the population density of the Greater Chennai area due to liquefaction susceptibility using GIS technology. The liquefaction susceptibility map (hazard) for the Greater Chennai was prepared by integration of geological and geomorphological parameters and analyzed over socioeconomic parameters (exposure) using an integration of GIS and AHP.ResultsThe result showed that around 53% of Greater Chennai’s households and population are very much exposed to liquefaction hazard.ConclusionsThis study can be used as a base level study for decision-making during land use planning as well as disaster mitigation planning.

Liquefaction Susceptibility Mapping in West Bengal with emphasis on its Capital City Kolkata under the Impact of a few Great Earthquakes triggered from the Himalaya and Northeast India

Liquefaction Susceptibility Mapping in West Bengal with emphasis on its Capital City Kolkata under the Impact of a few Great Earthquakes triggered from the Himalaya and Northeast India

A Detailed Liquefaction Susceptibility Map of Nestos River Delta, Thrace, Greece Based on Surficial Geology and Geomorphology

The existence of high potential onshore and offshore active faults capable to trigger large earthquakes in the broader area of Thrace, Greece in correlation with the critical infrastructures constructed on the recent and Holocene sediments of Nestos river delta plain, was the motivation for this research. The goal of this study is twofold; compilation of a new geomorphological map of the study area and the assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of the surficial geological units. Liquefaction susceptibility at regional scale is assessed by taking into account information dealing with the depositional environment and age of the surficial geological units. In our case, available geological mapping shows a deficient depiction of Pleistocene and Holocene deposits. Taking into consideration the heterogeneously behavior of active floodplains and deltas in terms of liquefaction, a detailed classification of geological units was mandatory. Using data provided by satellite and aerial imagery, and topographic maps, dated before the 1970’s when extensive modifications and land reclamation occurred in the area, we were able to trace fluvial and coastal geomorphological features like abandoned stream/meanders, estuaries, dunes, lagoons and ox-bow lakes. This geomorphological-oriented approach clearly classified the geological units according to their depositional environment and resulted in a more reliable liquefaction susceptibility map of 4 classes of susceptibility; Low, Moderate, High and Very High. The sediments classified as very high liquefaction susceptibility are related to fluvial landforms, the high to moderate liquefaction susceptibility ones in coastal and floodplain landforms, and low susceptibility in zones of marshes. The sediments classified in the highest group of liquefaction susceptibility cover 85.56 km2 of the study area (16.6%). Particular attention was drawn to critical infrastructure (Kavala International Airport “Alexander the Great”) constructed on the most prone to liquefaction areas.

Reconstruction of liquefaction damage scenario in Northern Bihar during 1934 and 1988 earthquake using geospatial methods

Northern Bihar witnessed severe liquefaction events during the 1934 (8.2 Mw) and 1988 (6.9 Mw) earthquakes. This study reconstructed the liquefaction damage scenario due to both earthquakes (1934, 1988). The liquefaction hazard map was prepared using two techniques (1) Rapid Response and Loss Estimation (Model A) and (2) the (Model B) Liquefaction Susceptibility Map (LSM) integrated with the Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA). The LSM was prepared using the multicriteria decision-making technique considering the site-specific thematic layers. The ground motion parameters (PGV and PGA) were retrieved from isoseismal maps prepared for both events. The hazard map prepared using Model B was classified into four classes very low, low, high, and severe, and the results obtained from both models were compared. The area under the curve (AUC) was determined for Model A 0.88 and 0.85 and Model B 0.94 and 0.84 for the 1934 and 1988 earthquakes, respectively. The prepared liquefaction hazard map may help policymakers demarcate the study area according to liquefaction hazard potential and mitigate future hazards.

Integrated mapping of the earthquake-induced liquefaction in Wates Groundwater Basin, Kulon Progo for land use planning consideration: A preliminary study

Since the development of New Yogyakarta International Airport (NYIA), land use planning and development in Wates Groundwater Basin, Kulon Progo, Indonesia, becoming more crucial. A regional-scaled study led by Buana et al. (2019) pointed out the area as moderate-high susceptibility to liquefaction. This study provides updated land-use conditions and a detailed liquefaction susceptibility map using Geographic Information System and Multi-Criteria Analysis (GIS-MCA) from the previous research data by Maulana (2017). The result shows that the south and east part of the basin is classified as very high susceptibility to liquefaction while the other part is low to moderate susceptibility class. This preliminary study suggests the best recommendation for geophysics and Standard Penetration Test (SPT) data acquisition in further analysis.

A GIS-based liquefaction susceptibility mapping utilising the morphotectonic analysis to highlight potential hazard zones in the East Ganga plain

A GIS-based liquefaction susceptibility mapping utilising the morphotectonic analysis to highlight potential hazard zones in the East Ganga plain

Mapping soil liquefaction susceptibility across Europe using the analytic hierarchy process

Mapping the susceptibility of earthquake-induced soil liquefaction at the continental scale is a challenge. Susceptibility of soils to liquefaction is the tendency of certain geomaterials to undergo a severe stiffness degradation and loss of shear strength. The latter could be induced by cyclic loading induced by seismic events. The liquefaction surface evidence is a local phenomenon, and detailed geotechnical field investigations are not available for regional studies, not to mention at continental scales. The literature review shows earthquake-induced soil liquefaction evidence in several European countries, yet, a comprehensive picture of the susceptibility at the European scale is not available. This work aims to develop a methodology to assess the earthquake-induced soil liquefaction susceptibility in Europe using geospatial parameters weighted via the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The major outcome of the study is a novel Liquefaction Susceptibility map of Europe (LSE), based on the building of ten different European macro-units for earthquake-induced soil liquefaction. These European macro-units have been delineated in this work in order to be homogenous areas from the geological, physiographical, and geomorphological points of view. The adopted input parameters are the depositional environment of the sediments, the distance from water bodies (coast and rivers), and the compound topographic index (as a proxy of the soil saturation). The resolution of the LSE map is 900 × 900 m. The results have been cross-compared with soil liquefaction susceptibility maps available for a region of Greece (i.e. Thrace), Portugal, Bulgaria, and sites where liquefaction manifestations occurred across Europe. The LSE can be adopted to identify at large scale the areas susceptible to liquefaction including also the territories across Europe characterized by low seismicity and potentially affected by anthropogenic seismicity.

Regional-Scale Seismic Liquefaction Susceptibility Mapping via an Empirical Approach Validated by Site-Specific Analyses

Regional-scale analyses of susceptibility to liquefaction are seldom performed in data-scarce areas. However, in spite of data limitations, such efforts can still provide useful information in case of populated, seismically active regions. The present work focuses on susceptibility zonation for soil liquefaction that might occur due to ground shaking in the Foggia Province, a data-scarce, seismically active area of about 7000 km2 located in southern Italy. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) approach is used to obtain the susceptibility to liquefaction map of the whole area, while a geological and geotechnical database including 531 boreholes from 84 localities is used for cross-validation. The data are processed by means of a simplified quantitative method to determine liquefaction potential and assess whether a specific area is prone to liquefaction or not. Our results, along with an AUC − ROC = 0.89 test value, indicate that there are widespread areas of medium to high and very high susceptibility, and that the most susceptible zones are localized along the Adriatic Sea coastline and watercourses. The final susceptibility to liquefaction map represents a step forward towards the assessment of secondary seismic hazard in the study area, thus supporting the regional and local administrations responsible for land-use planning and risk mitigation.

Seismic Liquefaction Risk Assessment of Critical Facilities in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Kathmandu Valley lies in an active tectonic zone, meaning that earthquakes are common in the region. The most recent was the Gorkha Nepal earthquake, measuring 7.8 Mw. Past earthquakes caused soil liquefaction in the valley with severe damages and destruction of existing critical infrastructures. As for such infrastructures, the road network, health facilities, schools and airports are considered. This paper presents a liquefaction susceptibility map. This map was obtained by computing the liquefaction potential index (LPI) for several boreholes with SPT measurements and clustering the areas with similar values of LPI. Moreover, the locations of existing critical infrastructures were reported on this risk map. Therefore, we noted that 42% of the road network and 16% of the airport area are in zones of very high liquefaction susceptibility, while 60%, 54%, and 64% of health facilities, schools and colleges are in very high liquefaction zones, respectively. This indicates that most of the critical facilities in the valley are at serious risk of liquefaction during a major earthquake and therefore should be retrofitted for their proper functioning during such disasters.

Liquefaction susceptibility maps for the Aqaba–Elat region with projections of future hazards with sea-level rise

The cities of Aqaba, Jordan and Elat, Israel are vulnerable to seismic damage because they are built over the active faults of the Dead Sea Transform that are the source of historically destructive earthquakes. A liquefaction susceptibility map was generated for the Aqaba–Elat region. Borehole data from 149 locations and the water table depth were used to calculate effective overburden stress in the Seed–Idriss simplified method. The liquefaction analysis was based on applying a cyclic loading scenario with horizontal peak ground acceleration of 0.3 gin a major earthquake. The liquefaction map, compiled using a GIS platform, shows high and moderate liquefaction susceptibility zones along the northern coast of the Gulf of Aqaba that extend 800 m inland from the shoreline. In Aqaba, several hotels, luxury apartment complexes, archaeological sites, ports and commercial districts are located within high and moderate liquefaction zones. In Elat, the seaport and the coastal hotel district are located within a high susceptibility zone. Most residential areas, schools and hospitals in both cities are located within zones not susceptible to liquefaction based on the methods of this study. The total area with the potential to be liquefied along the Gulf of Aqaba isc.10 km2. Given predictions for global sea-level, we ran three liquefaction models utilizing projected water table rises of 0.5, 1 and 2 m. These models yielded an increase in the area of high liquefaction ranging from 26 to 49%. Given the high potential of future earthquakes, our liquefaction susceptibility maps should help inform city officials for hazard mitigation planning.

Assessment of liquefaction susceptibility in Quaternary deposits: A case study from Jhapa Bazar area, eastern Nepal

Liquefaction is generally experienced in unconsolidated fine- grained sediments during the large earthquakes. In Nepal, the southern part of the country comprises Quaternary deposits called as Indo-Gangetic deposit. Sand and silts are dominant in this zone, where groundwater level is also relatively high. In eastern Nepal, several places have experienced ground fissures, sand boiling, and liquefaction during the large earthquakes in the past history. There are several factors including soil properties, groundwater level, grain size of sediments and ground acceleration that contribute to ground liquefaction. The eastern Nepal faced a devastating earthquake in 1934 (magnitude of 8.4), Udaypur earthquake in 1988 (magnitude of 6.6) and Sikkim-Nepal earthquake in 2011 (magnitude of 6.8) and there is still possibility of similar large earthquakes in future. Liquefaction was reported in many places during Nepal-Bihar earthquake that indicates possibility of liquefaction during similar earthquakes. Liquefaction potential values are calculated from sediment grain size, subsurface geology, groundwater level and standard penetration test (SPT)-N values. The epicenter, magnitude, and other parameters of Nepal-Bihar earthquake have been used to calculate the liquefaction potential. A liquefaction susceptibility map has been prepared in the study area that comprises low, medium, and high liquefaction potential zones. About 20% of the study area including Jhapa Bazar and its surrounding area seems highly susceptible to liquefaction.

Regional Liquefaction Susceptibility Mapping in the Himalayas using Geospatial Data and AHP Technique

Liquefaction susceptibility (LS) assessment is a necessary input for seismic zonation studies. LS can be done using geospatial models by integration of thematic layers. In this study, we have used analytical hierarchy process for integration of thematic layers (e.g. water table depth, peak horizontal acceleration, etc.) to generate a regional LS map for Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh in India. The final map was classified as liquefaction-likely, liquefaction-possible and liquefaction-not-likely zones. Results show Doon valley and Himalayan foothills are more prone to LS than the higher Himalayas.

Liquefaction severity mapping based on SPT data: a case study in Canakkale city (NW Turkey)

Soil liquefaction is one of the major causes of damage to buildings and structures during earthquakes. Very shallow groundwater table in Quaternary alluvial deposits and the seismic properties of a region can cause a significant damage to buildings and infrastructure dependent on liquefaction. Canakkale city is located in the first-degree seismic hazard zone according to the earthquake zone map of Turkey. A large part of the Canakkale settlement area is located on unconsolidated alluvium recently deposited by the Saricay River. In this survey, the liquefaction potential of the Canakkale settlement area was investigated based on the liquefaction severity index and liquefaction potential index for two possible earthquake scenarios with a moment magnitude (Mw) and peak ground acceleration (amax) of 7.5 and 319 gal and 7.0 and 222 gal, respectively. In addition, these two methods were analysed using the peak ground acceleration (amax = 141 gal) value measured at the Canakkale station during the 2014 Aegean Sea earthquake. Based on the results of the analyses, liquefaction susceptibility maps of Canakkale city were produced for different amax values. The study involved three stages: field work, laboratory testing, and generation of the liquefaction severity maps. Geotechnical boreholes at 151 locations were drilled and Standard Penetration Tests (SPT) performed. Thereafter, natural moisture content, unit weight, grain-size distribution, and Atterberg limits were determined by means of laboratory testing. Finally, Quaternary alluvial deposits in the study area were divided into five classes representing very low-to-very high liquefaction for three amax values.

Mapping surface motion parameters and liquefaction susceptibility in Tribhuvan International Airport, Nepal

ABSTRACTLocal site effects and liquefaction are major causes of building and lifeline damage in Kathmandu Valley as depicted by several historical earthquakes including recent 2015 Gorkha earthquake (Mw 7.8). Critical facilities like airports play important role in post-earthquake relief, response and recovery efforts. Tribhuvan International Airport (TIA) is the only international airport in Nepal that is located in alluvial soil deposit regarded as Gokarna formation. To assess the site effects and liquefaction occurrence in TIA, this study performs one-dimensional ground response analysis as well as liquefaction susceptibility analysis using shallow borehole logs. Surface motion parameters estimated from one-dimensional ground response analysis are mapped for 0.3g and 0.5g peak ground acceleration inputs. In addition to this, qualitative liquefaction susceptibility map is prepared considering the liquefaction potential index estimated for each borehole log.

LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY MAP OF GREECE

The basic goal of this study is the delineation of liquefaction susceptibility zones by correlating geological, geomorphological, seismological and past liquefaction occurrences information. A liquefaction susceptibility map should be used as a screening guide by decision makers for avoiding in advance prone to liquefaction areas. In order to compile this map, we took into consideration published data regarding the surficial distribution of geological units (IGME), the seismic hazard zonation in Greece as it is defined by the Earthquake Palling and Protection Organization and the distribution of historical liquefaction occurrences provided by the relatively database DALO v1.0 http://users.auth.gr/gpapatha/dalo.htm ). Initially, Quaternary age deposits were classified into categories of susceptibility based on their age and depositional process, having considered the designed value of acceleration. Afterwards, areas where past liquefaction occurrences were reported have been upgraded one level. The result obtained by this study is that as very high susceptibility zones are considered the coastal areas at the Ionian Islands and at the Gulf of Corinth

Spectral discrimination of Recent sediments around Bhuj, India, using Landsat-TM data and assessment of their vulnerability to seismicity-related failures

Kachchh region of India is a rift basin filled with sediments from Jurassic to Quaternary ages. This area is tectonically active and witnessed several major earthquakes since the recent historical past. During an earthquake event, the water-laden foundation soil liquefies and causes damage to buildings and other civil engineering structures. The January 26, 2001, Bhuj earthquake demonstrated extensive liquefaction-related damages in entire Kachchh Peninsula. Therefore, evaluation of liquefaction susceptibility of unconsolidated sediments is a vital requirement for developing seismic microzonation maps. In this paper, a new approach involving remote sensing techniques and geotechnical procedures is demonstrated for effective mapping of liquefaction-susceptible areas. The present and paleo-alluvial areas representing unconsolidated sediments were mapped using Landsat-TM data and field reflectance spectra. Spectral discrimination of alluvial area was made using the feature-oriented principal component selection and spectral angle mapping techniques. Subsequently, field geotechnical investigations were carried out in these areas. It is evident from the results that the alluvial soils are predominantly sandy loam with very low (7–28) standard penetration test values. The evaluated factor of safety for these soils varies from 0.43 to 1.7 for a peak ground acceleration of 0.38. Finally, a liquefaction susceptibility map is prepared by integrating results on alluvium distribution, factor of safety, and depth to water table.

An Improved Method for Seismic Site Characterization with Emphasis on Liquefaction Phenomenon

Iran is an active seismic region and frequent earthquakes and because of the active faults, often leads to severe casual-ties caused by structural destruction. Earthquake damage is commonly controlled by three interacting factors, source and path characteristics, local geological and geotechnical conditions and type of the structures. Obviously, all of this would require analysis and presentation of a large amount of geological, seismological and geotechnical data. In this paper, nonlinear geotechnical seismic hazard analysis considering the local site effects was executed and the soil lique-faction potential analysis has been evaluated for the Nemat Abad earth dam in Hamedan province of Iran because of its important socioeconomic interest and its location. Liquefaction susceptibility mapping is carried out using a decisional flow chart for evaluation of earthquake-induced effects, based on available data such as geological, groundwater depth, seismotectonic, sedimentary features, in situ, field and laboratory geotechnical parameters. A series model tests were conducted and then on base of the achieved data the idealized soil profile constructed. A C# GUI computer code “NLGSS_Shahri” was Generate, developed and then employed to evaluate the variation of shear modulus and damping ratio with shear strain amplitude to assess their effects on site response. To verify and validate the methodology, the obtained results of the generated code were compared to several known applicable procedures. It showed that computed output of this code has good and suitable agreement with other known applicable procedures.

An Improved Method for Seismic Site Characterization with Emphasis on Liquefaction Phenomena

Iran is an active seismic region and frequent earthquakes and because of the active faults, often leads to severe casual-ties caused by structural destruction. Earthquake damage is commonly controlled by three interacting factors, source and path characteristics, local geological and geotechnical conditions and type of the structures. Obviously, all of this would require analysis and presentation of a large amount of geological, seismological and geotechnical data. In this paper, nonlinear geotechnical seismic hazard analysis considering the local site effects was executed and the soil lique-faction potential analysis has been evaluated for the Nemat Abad earth dam in Hamedan province of Iran because of its important socioeconomic interest and its location. Liquefaction susceptibility mapping is carried out using a decisional flow chart for evaluation of earthquake-induced effects, based on available data such as geological, groundwater depth, seismotectonic, sedimentary features, in situ, field and laboratory geotechnical parameters. A series model tests were conducted and then on base of the achieved data the idealized soil profile constructed. A C# GUI computer code “NLGSS_Shahri” was Generate, developed and then employed to evaluate the variation of shear modulus and damping ratio with shear strain amplitude to assess their effects on site response. To verify and validate the methodology, the obtained results of the generated code were compared to several known applicable procedures. It showed that computed output of this code has good and suitable agreement with other known applicable procedures.

A new approach to liquefaction hazard zonation: Application to Laoag City, Northern Philippines

To help mitigate liquefaction hazards in the Philippines, an inexpensive yet effective approach to liquefaction hazard zonation was developed in this study. The proposed approach is also useful in other areas especially where funds for more rigorous procedures may not be available. The approach utilizes the geomorphology-based criteria to identify liquefaction-prone deposits based on geology and grain characteristics, and generate a preliminary liquefaction susceptibility map. Then, microtremor recordings, popularly used in site effect estimation, are gathered to derive qualitative information on the density and thickness of these deposits and generate a site classification map. This latter map is also essentially a ground shaking hazard map in that it shows those areas where thick, soft deposits likely to amplify and prolong the duration of ground motion can be found. Therefore, it also identifies areas where seismic demand can be high that the possibility of liquefaction being triggered is likewise high. Combining the two maps, an integrated liquefaction hazard zonation map is produced which provides not only an improved characterization of the soils’ capacity to resist liquefaction but also integrates qualitative information on the seismic demand on these deposits as well. With information about the relative thickness of the deposits, the severity of potential damage can likewise be inferred from the map since thicker deposits relate to more serious damage. The proposed approach was applied to Laoag City, Northern Philippines, where it was shown to reliably identify areas that are vulnerable to the hazard.