Linguistic Variables Research Articles

Perceived threats to the future of Icelandic and the importance of language acquisition research

Abstract Rising public concern regarding the linguistic effects of an increased, digitally mediated English presence in Iceland was one of the factors motivating the research project Modeling the Linguistic Consequences of Digital Language Contact (MoLiCoDiLaCo), in 2016–2019. In public discourse, a causal relationship between digital English input and reduced/incompletely acquired Icelandic had been (and still is) assumed, without scientific evidence. While the MoLiCoDiLaCo project sought to provide evidence for this assumption, the results did not show extensive English input effects on Icelandic linguistic variables. The main results of the project are discussed in the article with reference to a recent shift in the public narrative of perceived threats to the future of Icelandic. The authors show that the focus has in part moved away from digital language contact between English and Icelandic, and toward the rise of English as a lingua franca in the interactions of L1 and L2 speakers of Icelandic. This shift is discussed in terms of recent research on language acquisition, multilingualism, linguistic gatekeeping, and the preservation of globally small languages.

Deep Fuzzy Credibility Surfaces for Integrating External Databases in the Estimation of Operational Value at Risk

Operational risk (OR) is usually caused by losses due to human errors, inadequate or defective internal processes, system failures, or external events that affect an organization. According to the Basel II agreement, OR is defined by seven risk events: internal fraud, external fraud, labor relations, clients, damage to fixed assets, technical failures and failures in the execution and administration of processes. However, the low frequency with which a loss event occurs creates a technological challenge for insurers in estimating the operational value at risk (OpVar) for the protection derived from an organization’s business activities. Following the above, this paper develops and analyzes a Deep Fuzzy Credibility Surface model (DFCS), which allows the integration in a single structure of different loss event databases for the estimation of an operational value at risk (OpVar), overcoming the limitations imposed by the low frequency with which a risk event occurs within an organization (sparse data). For the estimation of OpVar, the DFCS model incorporates a novel activation function based on the generalized log-logistic function to model random variables of frequency and severity that define a loss event (linguistic random variables), as well as a credibility surface to integrate the magnitude and heterogeneity of losses in a single structure as a result of the integration of databases. The stability provided by the DFCS model could be evidenced through the structure exhibited by the aggregate loss distributions (ALDs), which are obtained as a result of the convolution process between frequency and severity random variables for each database and which are expected to achieve similar structures to the probability distributions suggested by Basel II agreements (lean, long tail, positive skewness) against the OR modeling. These features make the DFCS model a reference for estimating the OpVar to protect the risk arising from an organization’s business operations by integrating internal and external loss event databases.

Adaptive Management of Multi-Scenario Projects in Cybersecurity: Models and Algorithms for Decision-Making

In recent years, cybersecurity management has increasingly required advanced methodologies capable of handling complex, evolving threat landscapes. Scenario network-based approaches have emerged as effective strategies for managing uncertainty and adaptability in cybersecurity projects. This article introduces a scenario network-based approach for managing cybersecurity projects, utilizing fuzzy linguistic models and a Takagi–Sugeno–Kanga fuzzy neural network. Drawing upon L. Zadeh’s theory of linguistic variables, the methodology integrates expert analysis, linguistic variables, and a continuous genetic algorithm to predict membership function parameters. Fuzzy production rules are employed for decision-making, while the Mamdani fuzzy inference algorithm enhances interpretability. This approach enables multi-scenario planning and adaptability across multi-stage cybersecurity projects. Preliminary results from a research prototype of an intelligent expert system—designed to analyze project stages and adaptively construct project trajectories—suggest the proposed approach is effective. In computational experiments, the use of fuzzy procedures resulted in an over 25% reduction in errors compared to traditional methods, particularly in adjusting project scenarios from pessimistic to baseline projections. While promising, this approach requires further testing across diverse cybersecurity contexts. Future studies will aim to refine scenario adaptation and optimize system response in high-risk project environments.

‘Harsh’ SoMa vs ‘Beige’ Castro: The cross-modal construction of contrasting femininities in queer San Francisco

The study of gender in sociolinguistic variation has long concerned the ways linguistic variables pattern with binary gender identities like male and female, with the implicit assumption that masculine individuals will use variants that index masculinity, and feminine individuals will use variants that index femininity. The emerging field of trans linguistics has built upon insights from queer linguistics and challenged the idea that there must be a one-to-one correspondence between linguistic variants and gender identities. Studies of transgender speakers have illuminated that indexing gender is a process of bricolage, where multiple variables collaborate, and only one needs to index gender in a particular way for the speaker's overall semiotic construction to carry that gendered meaning. Here, I investigate cross-modal bricolage, by exploring how visual gender presentation and three different linguistic variables come together to construct contrasting feminine styles among San Francisco drag queens. Linguistic patterns and aesthetic choices illuminate that bricolage involves a semiotic division of labor, in which only some signs (or modalities) need to index gender to give the overall style that gendered meaning. Concurrently, other signs can contribute qualia to a style's overall qualic cloud, that distinguish the style from others in the semiotic landscape. This exploration illuminates the role of the body in conditioning the indexical potential of linguistic signs, destabilizes monolithic essentializations of trans linguistic practice, and acknowledges the varied ways that gender non-normative identity can manifest across communities.

Children’s Multilectal Repertoires: Diglossic Style-Shifting by Palestinian Children and Adolescents in Syria

Arabic diglossia, whereby Standard Arabic (SA) exists alongside numerous vernaculars, often leads to diglossic style-shifting based on context or topic changes and is marked in the vernacular by shifting to standard linguistic features. While this phenomenon has been widely studied in the speech of educated adults, research on diglossic style-shifting by children and adolescents has been rather limited. This paper investigates how it operates amongst 3–17-year-olds from a Bedouin speech community of Palestinian refugees in Syria. It examines context effects on realizations of the variables (θ) and (ð), which overlap with local realizations and (q), which has a standard realization ([q]) that is independent of dialectal variation in the community. Participants were recorded during sociolinguistic interviews and a picture-naming task, the latter being expected to evoke a school setting and prompt the use of more standard realizations, signaling diglossic style-shifting in their speech. Style-shifting was influenced by age, context, and the linguistic variables under examination. While picture-naming prompted greater use of standard realizations of all variables, shifting to [q] also appeared during the interview in lexical borrowings from SA, revealing topic effects on diglossic style-shifting. Children aged 6–14 exhibited more style-shifting in picture-naming, likely reflecting the central role of school in their lives, while the speech of 15–17-year-olds contained more lexical borrowing with [q]. This likely reflects their larger linguistic repertoires and longer exposure to SA than their younger peers. These findings indicate that SA plays a key role in participants’ linguistic practices and reflect their awareness of how to employ it appropriately in their speech.

Linguistic variation in mediated diplomatic communication: a full multi-dimensional analysis of interpreted language in Chinese Regular Press Conferences

The integration of corpus linguistics within translation studies has revolutionised our understanding of mediated language. This study endeavours to advance this burgeoning field by employing a full multi-dimensional analysis to investigate linguistic variation in interpreted language within the specialised context of diplomatic discourse. Specifically, the research examines the co-occurring patterns of linguistic features in interpreted diplomatic language vis-à-vis its non-interpreted counterpart. Employing a multivariate statistical technique, this investigation conducted a factor analysis of 113 linguistic variables, yielding five distinct linguistic dimensions: (1) Involved vs. Informational Production, (2) Objective vs. Addressee-focused Narration, (3) Literate-Oral Continuum, (4) Information Elaboration, and (5) Narrative vs. Non-narrative Concerns. The resulting patterns demonstrate that interpreted diplomatic language tends to be more informative, objective, less elaborated, non-narrative, and aligns more closely with formal registers compared to its non-interpreted counterpart, although both navigate the literate-oral continuum. This study delineates the prevailing co-occurrence patterns in interpreted and non-interpreted diplomatic languages and seeks to elucidate the potential factors shaping these linguistic variations by situating these patterns within the context of diplomatic communication. In doing so, it contributes to a nuanced understanding of how specialised contexts influence mediated language use. The findings have significant implications for corpus-based interpreting studies, shedding light on the multi-dimensional nature of interpreted language and informing the development of targeted pedagogical approaches for diplomatic interpreter training.

Differences in codeswitching patterns between immigrant and heritage speakers of US American Danish

This paper addresses intrasentential code-switching in US American Danish spoken by 1st generation immigrants from Denmark, who migrated to the US around 1900 as part as the transatlantic European mass emigration and their descendants (2nd and 3rd generation). The analysis is based on the Corpus of American Danish, specifically a dataset of 173 speakers producing 46 hours of speech. In this dataset, we observe significantly different patterns of intrasentential code-switching in the speech of the immigrant speakers (1st generation) and US-born heritage speakers (2nd and 3rd generation): The code-switching patterns of the heritage speakers show a preference for English lexemes that are integrated morphologically into Danish or which are part of Danish-English bilingual compounds. In contrast, the immigrant speakers prefer non-integrated English words for code-switching. This result taken per se shows that code-switching patterns show variation across generations just as other linguistic variables. Taking the result further, we have connected it to a previous study of representations of linguistic proficiency in immigrant Danish in the Americas. By this, we are able to show that the morphologically or lexically integrated code-switching of the heritage speakers correlate with features representing fluent speech, while the non-integrated code-switching of the immigrant speakers rather seems to correlate with features showing a low activation of Danish in a situation of language shift. Thus, the heritage speakers seem to have developed a way of speaking US American Danish where English word stems are an integrated part of speaking fluently and lexically varied.

Forms of address and the Portuguese presence in Santos, Brazil

The city of Santos in Brazil is the only area in the state of São Paulo where the form of address tu is found (Modesto 2006). The contact between Brazilians of European descent and Portuguese immigrants, in the beginning of the 20th century, is a possible cause of this phenomenon (Pereira & Frutuoso 2007). The literature on language contact highlights three important social variables which may lead to linguistic change. The first of these variables, as stated by Ravindranath (2015), is related to demography. The city of Santos became home to many Portuguese immigrants back in the first decade of the 20th century. The second variable is space and mobility (Britain 2013). Due to sanitary reforms (Mello 2007), the city of Santos had its urban mobility and spatial arrangement transformed, and this reshaped how the Brazilian and the Portuguese immigrants would move around the city. The last social variable is described by Dodsworth (2017) as the social role of individuals within a community. In Santos, the Portuguese immigrants had important roles in labor unions and helped to organize many of the harbor workers (Maram 1979). These factors converged to create a "solidary" scenario in Santos, which may have favored the use of more solidary forms of address where interlocutors could engage on more equal terms (see Brown & Gilman 1960) such as tu. In order to verify how the forms of address were used by Portuguese immigrants in the state of São Paulo in the beginning of the 20th century, 114 personal letters (Museu de Imigração de São Paulo 2019) were analyzed. Those immigrants who lived by the coast presented a higher use of tu in relationships among peers. In Santos, linguistic and social variables seem to have favored the use of tu and its usage persists today.

Listening comprehension in a home language: a case of Russian in Germany.

Listening comprehension is central to language learning, yet it remains the least understood and least researched skill. This statement is still relevant today, as there is insufficient research to explore listening comprehension from the perspective of family-related multilingualism and to consider the complete linguistic repertoire of multilingual speakers. Moreover, with regard to home language, listening comprehension is assumed to be a more developed language competence than reading or writing. Based on the mentioned research, the aim of the present study is to investigate listening comprehension and its influencing factors specifically in German-Russian simultaneous bilinguals aged 13-19 (n = 99) by considering the home- and majority language. The study uses quantitative data collection methods such as linguistic tests in Russian and German for the elicitation in different levels of listening and questionnaires for strategy use and background. The research questions are as follows: What does the language proficiency and input in Russian look like? (1) Regarding listening comprehension in Russian as a home language, are there differences between the speakers within comprehension on different levels, e.g., is sound decoding easier than sentence parsing? (2) If there are differences in Russian as a home language, which linguistic and background variables can correlate with the performance of listening comprehension on its different levels? Concerning the first research question, the results show relevant differences between four different levels of listening comprehension (phoneme, word, sentence, and text level), which strengthened the assumed complexity of listening comprehension in the home language. In addition, the results show different connections between the listening comprehension competence and the input from different family members, as well as exposure to film and television in the home and majority language.

The Geographical and Social Stratification of Judeo-Georgian

Abstract This article focuses on the variation found within Judeo-Georgian as it correlates with predetermined geographical and social categories and explores the changes it underwent as spoken by the small Jewish community remaining in Georgia and, later, as a consequence of contacts with other languages, in a new linguistic environment in Israel. The research is based on the theories and methods of variationist sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. Social and geographical factors were instrumental in shaping linguistic variation in Judeo-Georgian as one of the key identity markers of Georgian Jews. Geographical, social, and religious dimensions of Judeo-Georgian are discussed in relation to linguistic variables. The research builds on Sarah Bunin Benor’s (2008) distinctive linguistic repertoire approach to Jewish languages. The varieties of Judeo-Georgian spoken in Georgia were based on local/regional dialects but differed from them through the use of Hebraisms/Aramaisms, displaced dialectisms, and archaisms. Upper-class Jews largely avoided using Judeo-Georgian, middle-class Jews used it in certain speech situations, and for lower-class Jews, it was the only means of communication. Regional and social peculiarities of Judeo-Georgian, as spoken in different parts of Georgia, as well as the changes caused by immigration, are manifest in the speech varieties spoken by Georgian Jewry in Israel.

Third person accusative clitic pronouns as object agreement marks in Brazilian Portuguese

Even though Brazilian Portuguese (BP) has replaced its third person accusative clitic pronouns (ClA3) for strong pronouns, they have not completely disappeared: although they are not acquired during the first years of BP native speakers’ linguistic development, they are a topic taught in Brazil classrooms. However, they seem to behave differently from the other clitics (which occur in proclisis to the main verb). Nunes (2015) suggests that they have been reanalyzed as object agreement marks, given their tendency to be placed in post-verbal position of verb forms that can independently carry subject agreement marks, to occur in proclisis with verbs whose subject agreement mark is occupied, and not to occur next to verbs in the past participle or in the gerund, since they do not have a position for agreement. In order to control some linguistic and sociolinguistic variables, this study had the objective to gather experimental data regarding the idiosyncrasies the ClA3 have using a sentence rewriting task including the ClA3 “o” and the clitic “me”. There were differences between the use of these two pronouns, having the clitic “me” followed the general tendency of BP, being placed, almost exclusively, in proclisis to the verb it is an argument of. Enclisis, on the other hand, was more productive with the ClA3, namely with non-inflected infinitive verbs. However, proclisis to the main verb was also a widely used option by the participants, including in contexts Nunes (2015) did not predict it to occur. It is concluded that, at first sight, Nunes’s (2015) hypothesis was not backed by the data obtained here. Nevertheless, the difference in the speakers’ behavior regarding the two pronouns used in this study cannot be disregarded, what suggests they are likely to have a different nature, although they do not seem to be object agreement marks.

Three worlds of variables to control in linguistics

Abstract Using the Popperian three-world theory, we draw a general picture of linguistic variables in linguistic data elicitation, judgement, and analysis. To cope with these three worlds of variables, we have two suggestions, namely careful variable control and bigger data size, as well as two reminders with respect to indiscriminate data and proportional conclusions.

New Fermatean Fuzzy Distance Metric and Its Utilization in the Assessment of Security Crises Using the MCDM Technique

The problem of insecurity is a global phenomenon that has several forms like terrorism, banditry, kidnappings, etc. Insecurity has taken hold in the Sub-Saharan Region of West Africa, especially in Nigeria, for over two decades. Nigeria’s security crisis is more pronounced in the Northern Region, with a new wave in the North-Central Region of Nigeria. It is herculean to assess insecurity in the North-Central Region of Nigeria because of the region’s fuzzy or imprecise nature of insecurity. This constitutes the rationale for deploying the Fermatean fuzzy technique to assess insecurity due to the capacity of the Fermatean fuzzy scheme to handle imprecision. To this end, a new Fermatean fuzzy distance metric is presented to evaluate insecurity in the North-Central Region of Nigeria using a multi-criteria decision-making technique. To express the logic for creating the new Fermatean fuzzy distance metric, some existing Fermatean fuzzy distance metrics are discussed, along with their drawbacks. The mathematical properties of the new technique are discussed, and the new method is applied computationally to assess insecurity in the North-Central Region of Nigeria. The data for the security assessment are collected via Fermatean fuzzy linguistic variables using the opinions of security experts and analyzed using the technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution, which is a commonly used multi-criteria decision-making method. Finally, the numerical validity of the new technique is expressed with comparative results, and the finding shows the benefit of the new distance approach over the existing methodologies. The outcome of the work will provide reliable traveling advisories for safe voyages within the region.

The Synopsis of Soft Computing.

The traditional method of problem-solving, known as hard computing, is limited in its ability to handle modern digital technology and real-world problems accurately. Soft computing, a newer paradigm, offers a more versatile approach by utilizing multi-valued logic and human knowledge to solve complex, nonlinear problems efficiently. Unlike hard computing, soft computing can handle imprecise data and uncertainty effectively. This methodology has been successfully applied across various sectors, including scientific, industrial, and medical fields, providing more accurate results. Soft computing is good for its contributions to revolutionizing problem-solving techniques, being tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, and linguistic variables, and offering approximate solutions to intricate problems.

The Relation of Linguistic Awareness Skills to Reading and Spelling for Autistic and Non-Autistic Elementary School-Age Children.

For non-autistic children, it is well established that linguistic awareness skills support their success with reading and spelling. Few investigations have examined whether these same linguistic awareness skills play a role in literacy development for autistic elementary school-age children. This study serves as a first step in quantifying the phonological, prosodic, orthographic, and morphological awareness skills of autistic children; how these skills compare to those of non-autistic children; and their relation to literacy performance. We measured and compared the phonological, prosodic, orthographic, and morphological awareness skills of 18 autistic (with average nonverbal IQs) and 18 non-autistic elementary school-age children, matched in age, nonverbal IQ, and real-word reading. The relations between linguistic awareness and the children's word-level literacy and reading comprehension skills were examined, and we explored whether the magnitude of these relations was different for the two groups. Regression analyses indicated the relative contribution of linguistic awareness variables to performance on the literacy measures for the autistic children. The non-autistic children outperformed the autistic children on most linguistic awareness measures. There were moderate-to-strong relations between performances on the linguistic awareness and literacy measures for the non-autistic children, and most associations were not reliably different from those for the autistic children. Regression analyses indicate that the performance on specific linguistic awareness variables explains unique variance in autistic children's literacy performance. Although less developed than those of their non-autistic peers, the linguistic awareness skills of autistic elementary school-age children are important for successful reading and spelling.

Sustainability assessment of urban water public‐private partnership projects with environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria

AbstractWith the acceleration of urbanization, the sustainability of urban water infrastructure projects has become pivotal to social development. This research aims to construct a comprehensive sustainability assessment model for urban water public‐private partnership (PPP) projects based on the environmental, social, and governance criteria. First, a multi‐level assessment indicator system is established considering the economic, social, ecological, and governance sustainability dimensions. Then, the extended analytic hierarchy process is utilized to determine the weights of indicators based on expert scoring. To address the ambiguity of qualitative linguistic variables, the interval‐valued intuitionistic fuzzy set method is applied to aggregate expert assessments. An empirical case study of an urban water project verifies the feasibility of the proposed approach. Results demonstrate that experts emphasize economic sustainability, while social sustainability is an overlooked dimension that requires improvement. The research contributes to the field by developing an applied, industry‐specific sustainability evaluation model for urban water PPP projects using advanced decision‐making techniques. This model provides practical tools for stakeholders to enhance the sustainable performance of urban water infrastructure projects.

New design of robust controller based on fuzzy 12 linguistic variables for wind power conversion system

New design of robust controller based on fuzzy 12 linguistic variables for wind power conversion system

BIPOLAR PYTHAGOREAN FUZZY NEUTROSOPHIC SET (BPNS) INTEGRATED WITH AHP EXPRESS (BPNS-AHP EXPRESS) WITH LINGUISTIC VARIABLE: A NEW APPROACH

Decision-making in real-world situations inherently involves uncertainty and insufficient information. To overcome these challenges, decision-makers must adopt techniques that recognize and mitigate the influence of unknown or insufficiently known elements in the decision environment. A single technique often does not address these diverse scenarios, as multiple perspectives may emerge. AHP-express, a simplified form of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), has recently been introduced; however, the development of a new linguistic variable for AHP-express has not been thoroughly investigated. This study initiates the integration of the newly generalized fuzzy set, known as Bipolar Pythagorean Neutrosophic Set (BPNS), with AHP-express (BPNS-AHP express). We develop linguistic variables within the BPNS-AHP express framework using a 7-point linguistic scale, ensuring that BPNS-outlined requirements are met. This articles highlights the six step BPNS-AHP express procedure and demonstrates how it can enhance decision-makers effectiveness across various application domains by providing a more thorough and accurate representation of their thoughts and judgments.

Writing a successful applied linguistics conference abstract: The relationship between stylistic and linguistic features and raters’ evaluations

The conference abstract (CA) is a promotional genre that is vital to academic success. However, composing a high-quality abstract can be challenging for both first (L1) and second language (L2) writers. Some researchers have performed contrastive analyses of accepted/rejected CAs, yet few studies have analyzed the extent to which different stylistic and linguistic features can predict reviewers’ scores. The current study furthers this line of inquiry, while also responding to scholars’ recent calls for more replication work in the fields of applied linguistics and second language acquisition. Using a corpus of 304 abstracts from an applied linguistics conference, the current study is an approximate replication that analyzes the extent to which 32 variables are predictive of CA raters’ evaluations. Data analyses consisted of multiple stages, including examining the relationships between CA scores and nine stylistic variables (e.g., rhetorical moves, study completeness) and 23 linguistic variables (e.g., grammatical errors, and lexical and syntactic complexity measures). Statistically significant variables were then entered into a regression model. Results suggest that seven variables accounted for approximately 25 percent of CA scores. The pedagogical implications of these findings are discussed for L1/L2 writers, along with future research directions.

FORECASTING AND OPTIMIZATION OF CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT OPERATION UNDER CONDITIONS OF FUZZY INFORMATION

This paper discusses the application of nonlinear regression to forecast and optimize the operation of catalytic cracking units under conditions of fuzzy information. Catalytic cracking is a crucial process in oil refining that produces high-quality gasoline and other light hydrocarbon products. However, the complexity of the process and the uncertainty of initial data complicate the modeling and optimization of plant operations. To address this issue, a nonlinear regression method is proposed that accommodates the fuzziness of input and output parameters described by linguistic variables. The methodology includes the collection and formalization of expert knowledge, the construction of fuzzy models, and their integration into the process control system. Forecasting is performed by creating regression models that describe the relationships between operational parameters and product quality characteristics. The paper presents a procedure for developing and applying nonlinear regression models, describes algorithms for synthesizing linguistic models, and provides examples of their use to optimize the operation of catalytic cracking units. The modeling results demonstrate the high adequacy and accuracy of the proposed method, as well as its advantages over traditional approaches in conditions of uncertainty and data scarcity. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the development and testing of advanced nonlinear regression models adapted for analyzing and optimizing catalytic cracking processes based on fuzzy data. These methods take into account the specificity and uncertainty of process data, improving the accuracy and reliability of forecasts, which facilitates more effective management of production processes in the petrochemical industry. The main reason for conducting this study is the need to improve the control of oil refining processes, particularly catalytic cracking, which plays an important role in producing high-quality gasoline. The complexity of this process and the presence of fuzzy information caused by fuzzy initial data require the development of new modeling and optimization methods. Existing traditional models based on deterministic methods are often insufficient under uncertainty. This leads to a decrease in the accuracy of process control, which can negatively affect the quality of the final product and production efficiency. The use of nonlinear regression in combination with fuzzy logic is a more flexible and adaptive approach that allows you to take into account the fuzziness and uncertainty of data and use expert knowledge to build models that match the actual operating conditions of the units. Thus, this study aims to solve the key problems associated with data uncertainty and the complexity of the catalytic cracking process, which will improve the accuracy of forecasting and optimization of the units. The main contribution is creating a model that uses nonlinear regression methods in combination with fuzzy logic. This allows uncertainty in input data (such as reactor temperature or pressure) to be effectively considered and processed to improve gasoline and other product yield forecasts. It is shown that using nonlinear regression combined with fuzzy logic significantly improves the management of technological processes, increases the output and quality of products, and reduces production costs. The conclusion of the paper discusses the prospects for further development of the methodology and its application to solve similar tasks in other areas of chemical technology.