Linguistic Feedback Research Articles

Linguistic feedback supports rapid adaptation to acoustically degraded speech

Humans can quickly adapt to recognize acoustically degraded speech, and here we hypothesize that the quick adaptation is enabled by internal linguistic feedback- Listeners use partially recognized sentences to adapt the mapping between acoustic features and phonetic labels. We test this hypothesis by quantifying how quickly humans adapt to degraded speech and analyzing whether the adaptation process can be simulated by adapting an automatic speech recognition (ASR) system based on its own speech recognition results. We consider three types of acoustic degradation, i.e., noise vocoding, time compression, and local time-reversal. The human speech recognition rate can increase by >20% after exposure to just a few acoustically degraded sentences. Critically, the ASR system with internal linguistic feedback can adapt to degraded speech with human-level speed and accuracy. These results suggest that self-supervised learning based on linguistic feedback is a plausible strategy for human adaptation to acoustically degraded speech.

Enhancing ESP Learning: Investigating Students' Perspectives on Real-Time Written Corrective Feedback Delivery via Google Docs

The present research aims to investigate the practice of real-time or synchronous written corrective feedback (SWCF) delivery via Google Docs as a platform to deliver feedback, known as a linguistic feedback tool (LiFT) in ESP (English for Specific Purposes) classes, students’ preferences and viewpoints of SWCF. The research employed a qualitative case study involving 15 students from an advanced English correspondence course in a non-English department of a private university in Depok, West Java, Indonesia. Open-ended questionnaires, document analysis, and semi-structured interviews were used to gather the data. The findings revealed that auto-generated and human feedback are used to deliver SWCF via Google Docs, inferring that those features can build students' awareness of language aspects, content, and context in composing professional documents. Direct feedback was delivered more frequently, regarding the learning time efficiency and the students’ ability to identify errors. Further, the students preferred frequent SWCF, direct and indirect feedback, and correcting delivery methods. Finally, they considered that SWCF delivered via Google Docs assists them in improving letter accuracy. Their preferences and viewpoints might allow the lecturer to choose appropriate feedback delivery strategies and material reinforcement. The present research implies a balanced use of auto-generated and human feedback from LiFT in SWCF delivery. Evaluating the effectiveness of SWCF delivery via Google Docs for different levels of achievers in ESP classes might be a potential area of future research. Other LiFTs’ infusion into ESP classes is also worth researching to provide language instructors with alternative applications for SWCF delivery.

“Pero yo también estoy aprendiendo”: Negotiating expert and novice positions in heritage–second language learner interaction

AbstractDrawing on positioning theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of mind, this study analyzes the discursive processes through which expert and novice positions are negotiated in heritage–second language (HL–L2) learner interaction. It examines how positioning practices shape collaboration between HL and L2 learners, determining what types of learning opportunities are created and for whom. Data was collected in a high‐intermediate Spanish language class with 8 HL and 10 L2 learners. As part of their regular course activities, learners completed four collaborative writing tasks in mixed dyads. Three HL–L2 interactions were selected as case studies. The combined analysis of discursive positioning, patterns of interaction, and language‐related episodes showed how expert positions, often assigned to HL learners due to their heritage speaker status, constrain these learners’ access to the linguistic feedback and help needed for HL development. When pre‐established conceptions of linguistic expertise are challenged and HL learners are positioned as language learners, with knowledge to gain, and their L2 partners as equal peers, with knowledge to share, opportunities for HL development expand. The article discusses the research and pedagogical implications of these findings.

The Effect of Coded Focused and Unfocused Corrective Feedback on ESL Student Writing Accuracy

This study employed a mixed-method approach including a classroom experiment and 24 in-depth interviews, to investigate the effects of two feedback techniques (coded focused and unfocused written corrective feedback) on L2 learners in a self-financed tertiary institute in Hong Kong. Three intact classes of 47 students served as the experiment and control groups; the control group only received feedback on content and organization, whereas the two experiment groups also received focused and unfocused linguistic feedback respectively. The feedback intervention was conducted over an eight-week intensive summer course, focusing on three grammar errors (articles, singular/plural nouns, and verb forms). Altogether students wrote six pieces, among which four were analysed for the present research. The study found that students who received focused WCF significantly outperformed the other two groups, though the effects vary across error types. Meanwhile, no significant differences are found between the unfocused and control group. In-depth interviews explored how individual learners’ metalinguistic understanding and engagement affect the usefulness of WCF. The results reveal that learners who received focused feedback developed a deeper understanding of the linguistic nature of specific error types. Learners’ English proficiency and engagement strategies also played a role. Implications for pedagogical practice are discussed.

Learning the Disciplines Through Linguistic Feedback: Contribution to the Development of a Discipline-Specific, Formative Evaluation of Students’ Assignments

Students write to learn. Besides, enculturation to the disciplinary discourse happens during writing. Feedback on the assignments from the students scaffolds students’ writing development and learning paths. However, knowledge about the relationship between language, including argumentation in the discipline, on one hand, and the content of the discipline, on the other, is needed. This article is based on a socio-cultural approach to writing in the disciplines, and theory on feedback, and focuses on the relationship between the meso-level of texts (sentences, clauses, word choice) and the content of the discipline. We discuss how insight into the meso-level of texts may be used to improve and to develop feedback and formative evaluation. Cases from an intervention project in a Danish upper secondary school are included, and indicate that teachers and students assign a lower priority to feedback on the meso-level. This article claims that providing feedback on the meso-level strengthens writing development and students’ learning processes. To illustrate how this may be accomplished two texts are analyzed: one from a history class and one from a biology class.

Exploring Mothers' Experience of a Linguistic Feedback Technology for Children at Risk of Poor Language Development: Qualitative Pilot Study.

BackgroundThe early language environment is important for language development and a child’s life-course trajectory. Risk factors associated with poor language development outcomes in children include maternal anxiety and depression, low educational attainment, substance misuse, and low socioeconomic status. Language Environment Analysis (LENA) is a wearable technology designed to promote caregivers’ engagement in supporting their children’s language development. LENA provides quantitative linguistic feedback, which has been shown to improve caregiver language output, thus enhancing a child’s language environment. There is limited research on the uptake of this technology by families with developmentally at-risk children.ObjectiveThis qualitative study aims to explore the conditions under which mothers with children at risk of poor developmental outcomes are willing to adopt the use of LENA to monitor and improve caregiver language output.MethodsUsing a qualitative interpretive design, semistructured, in-depth interviews were conducted with 8 mothers. Participants were recruited purposively to select the maximal variation of socioeconomic and ethnodemographic backgrounds. The transcribed interview data were analyzed thematically and interpretatively. Themes were mapped abductively to an extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, which included contextual factors for LENA acceptance.ResultsFactors that influenced the intention to use LENA included both technology-specific acceptance factors and contextual factors. Technology acceptance themes included reassurance, feeling overwhelmed, and trust. These themes were mapped to performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence. Contextual themes included emergent success and the intrusion of past difficulties. These were mapped to parenting self-efficacy and perceived risk. The theme of building on success described behavioral intention. Mothers were more likely to adopt LENA when the technology was viewed as acceptable, and this was influenced by parenting self-efficacy and perceived risk.ConclusionsLENA is a technology that is acceptable to mothers with children who are at risk of poor language development outcomes. Further studies are needed to establish LENA’s effectiveness as an adjunct to strategies to enrich a child’s early language environment.

Students’ Reflection Levels by Feedback Type in Asynchronous Online Group Discussion Activities

온라인 그룹토론활동에서 시각적 피드백과 교수자 피드백은 학습자의 참여도와 상호작용을 촉진하고, 학업성취도를 향상시키는 것으로 그 효과가 검증되어왔다. 그러나 토론활동은 비판적 사고력 향상을 목적으로 한다는 점에서 토론활동을 통해 드러나는 학습자들의 성찰 수준과의 관련성을 살펴볼 때 그 교육적 효과가 보다 더 명확해질 수 있다. 이 연구의 목적은 온라인 그룹토론활동에서 피드백 유형에 따라 학습자의 성찰적 사고 수준이 서로 어떤 특성을 보이는지 질적 차원에서 탐구하는 것이다. 연구 참여자는 2020년 2학기에 A대학교에서 개설된 교양교과목 ‘인간삶과 교육’을 수강하는 4개 분반 학습자 115명이다. 온라인 토론활동을 수행하는 동안 2개 분반(64명)에는 시각 및 언어적 피드백을 제공하였고 다른 2개 분반(51명)에는 교수자 피드백을 제공하였다. 연구 참여자들은 온라인 토론활동 이후 성찰활동을 수행하도록 안내 받았으며, 이 연구에서는 학습자들이 작성한 성찰내용을 Kember와 그의 동료들의 성찰 수준 모델을 재구성한 기준에 따라 분석되었다. 그리고 연구 참여자 중 8명의 자발적 참여자를 모집하여 4명씩 두 집단으로 나누어 포커스그룹면담을 수행하였다. 연구결과, 두 집단의 공통적 특성으로 ‘비성찰’과 ‘이해 성찰’ 수준에서 ‘공감과 차이에 대한 느낌형 성찰’을 수행하고 있었으며, 빈도는 낮았으나 ‘비판적 성찰’ 수준에서 ‘사회적 문제에 대한 인식형 성찰’을 하고 있는 것으로 나타났다. 한편, ‘성찰’ 수준에서 시각 및 언어적 피드백 집단은 ‘나-동료 상호작용 중심의 과정 성찰’과 ‘동료와의 상호작용으로 더욱 명료해지는 내용 성찰’의 특성을 갖는 것으로 나타났으며, 교수자 피드백 집단은 ‘나-주제 상호작용 중심의 과정 성찰’과 ‘주장의 합리성에 대해 내재적으로 검토하는 내용 성찰’의 특성을 갖는 것으로 나타났다. 연구 결과를 기반으로 피드백 유형에 따른 연구 참여자들의 성찰 수준별 특성이 갖는 의미를 논의하고, 교육적 효과를 높이기 위한 온라인 토론시스템의 피드백 설계에 주는 시사점을 제안하였다.The purpose of this study is to qualitatively explore the characteristics of learners reflective thinking levels according to type of feedback in online group discussion activities. The research participants were 115 students from four classes taking the liberal arts course Human Life and Education at a university in the fall semester of 2020. During the online discussion activity, visual and linguistic feedback was provided to two classes (64 students), and teacher feedback was provided to another two classes (51 students). Participants were guided to perform reflection activities after the discussion activity; the contents of reflection were analyzed according to the criteria for reconstructing the reflection-level model of Kember and his colleague. In addition, eight volunteer participants were recruited from among the sample and divided into two groups of four to conduct focus group interviews. As a result of the study, both groups performed “feeling reflection on empathy and difference” and “perceived reflection on social problems” as common features. In reflection level, visual and linguistic feedback groups were found to have the characteristics of a “I-peer interaction centered reflection” and a “reflection become clearer through interaction with colleagues” Otherwise, teacher feedback group was found to have the characteristics of a “I-topic interaction centered reflection” and a “reflection on inherently examining the rationality of the argument.”

Learning Rewards From Linguistic Feedback

We explore unconstrained natural language feedback as a learning signal for artificial agents. Humans use rich and varied language to teach, yet most prior work on interactive learning from language assumes a particular form of input (e.g., commands). We propose a general framework which does not make this assumption, instead using aspect-based sentiment analysis to decompose feedback into sentiment over the features of a Markov decision process. We then infer the teacher's reward function by regressing the sentiment on the features, an analogue of inverse reinforcement learning. To evaluate our approach, we first collect a corpus of teaching behavior in a cooperative task where both teacher and learner are human. We implement three artificial learners: sentiment-based "literal" and "pragmatic" models, and an inference network trained end-to-end to predict rewards. We then re-run our initial experiment, pairing human teachers with these artificial learners. All three models successfully learn from interactive human feedback. The inference network approaches the performance of the "literal" sentiment model, while the "pragmatic" model nears human performance. Our work provides insight into the information structure of naturalistic linguistic feedback as well as methods to leverage it for reinforcement learning.

Enhancing the NICU language environment with a neonatal Cuddler program.

ObjectiveTo compare effects of a language intervention on Cuddler and parent adult word counts (AWC), and to compare Cuddler versus parent and nurse-care times.DesignProspective pilot cohort intervention study. Twelve Cuddler-low-visit (≤2/week) infant pairs and 17 high-visit (≥3/week) parent–infant pairs were enrolled. Each had a 16-hour baseline recording (R1) followed by a language curriculum with linguistic feedback and an outcome recording (R2) 1 week later. Bivariate group analyses and longitudinal negative binomial regressions were run.ResultsAfter the intervention, there were non-significant increases in AWC/h for Cuddlers and high-visit parents. Cuddler AWCs were similar to high-visit parents and significantly higher than nurse-care times on both recordings. Within the low-visit group, hourly AWCs were higher when Cuddlers were present versus absent (R1 = 1779 versus 552, R2 = 2530 versus 534, p < 0.0001).ConclusionsNICU language environments are different for low-visit and high-visit infants and Cuddlers can increase infant language exposure in the NICU.

Graduate Students’ Perceived Needs and Preferences for Supervisor Written Feedback for Thesis Writing

A plethora of previous research has explored students’ preferences for written feedback from teachers to respond to students’ writing in the classroom. However, little or no research has investigated graduate students’ needs and preferences regarding written feedback provided by their supervisors in response to thesis writing. This study examined the feedback needs and preferences of EFL graduate students to the three nominated themes defining supervisor written feedback to thesis writing in this study: content, genre, and linguistic feedback to thesis writing. Data was collected from 32 master’s students from the TEFL and Media and Communications at Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia using a questionnaire and an unstructured interview. The participants’ responses were tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that both groups commonly preferred feedback on content the most. When sub-categories of this feedback were examined further, it was found that TEFL students favored gaps in theoretical understanding, but Media and Communications students preferred coverage and gaps in the literature. They also showed discrepancies regarding their preferences for part-genres in thesis writing and the various features of linguistic accuracy. The results of this study suggest that feedback on theses should be realized in regard to the needs and preferences of graduate students. Finally, implications for further research that could shed light on the resonant understanding of feedback on thesis writing are presented.

Graduate Students’ Perceived Needs and Preferences for Supervisor Written Feedback for Thesis Writing

A plethora of previous research has explored students’ preferences for written feedback from teachers to respond to students’ writing in the classroom. However, little or no research has investigated graduate students’ needs and preferences regarding written feedback provided by their supervisors in response to thesis writing. This study examined the feedback needs and preferences of EFL graduate students to the three nominated themes defining supervisor written feedback to thesis writing in this study: content, genre, and linguistic feedback to thesis writing. Data was collected from 32 master’s students from the TEFL and Media and Communications at Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia using a questionnaire and an unstructured interview. The participants’ responses were tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that both groups commonly preferred feedback on content the most. When sub-categories of this feedback were examined further, it was found that TEFL students favored gaps in theoretical understanding, but Media and Communications students preferred coverage and gaps in the literature. They also showed discrepancies regarding their preferences for part-genres in thesis writing and the various features of linguistic accuracy. The results of this study suggest that feedback on theses should be realized in regard to the needs and preferences of graduate students. Finally, implications for further research that could shed light on the resonant understanding of feedback on thesis writing are presented.

Collecting Cultural Feedback on Ethiopian Views on Girls, Sport, and Voice

This qualitative study used data collected from five interviews conducted to gather cultural and linguistic feedback on a 21-question instrument created for a future study focused on Ethiopian girl athletes. Participants met the following criteria: (a) native to Ethiopia (b) at least 15 years old and (c) proficient English reading and speaking skills. Participants did not complete the questionnaire, rather, they read it and provided cultural and linguistic feedback on its content. Participants provided feedback via interviews both in person and over the phone during a two-week period. The instrument was designed to collect data from members of Girls Gotta Run Foundation, a non-profit organization in Ethiopia that uses sport to promote gender equity. It consists of questions that focus on girls’ perceptions on the constructs of gender, sport, and voice empowerment. Findings demonstrated the importance of providing greater flexibility in questions that related to age and career goals, while the impact running has on Ethiopian culture was reinforced. Conducting this pilot study demonstrated the importance of testing cross-cultural instruments prior to final instrument administration to gain the most culturally accurate data possible.

Referring expression comprehension model with matching detection and linguistic feedback

The task of referring expression comprehension (REC) is to localise an image region of a specific object described by a natural language expression, and all existing REC methods assume that the object described by the referring expression must be located in the given image. However, this assumption is not correct in some real applications. For example, a visually impaired user might tell his robot ‘please take the laptop on the table to me’. In fact, the laptop is not on the table anymore. To address this problem, the authors propose a novel REC model to deal with the situation where expression‐image mismatching occurs and explain the mismatching by linguistic feedback. The authors' REC model consists of four modules: the expression parsing module, the entity detection module, the relationship detection module, and the matching detection module. They built a data set called NP‐RefCOCO+ from RefCOCO+ including both positive samples and negative samples. The positive samples are original expression‐image pairs in RefCOCO+. The negative samples are the expression‐image pairs in RefCOCO+, whose expressions are replaced. They evaluate the model on NP‐RefCOCO+ and the experimental results show the advantages of their method for dealing with the problem of expression‐image mismatching.

Randomised control language intervention for infants of adolescent mothers.

Create a Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA)-based intervention to increase adolescent and infant speech and improve 12-month language outcomes. Randomised control trial of adolescent (15-19years) mother-infant pairs comparing language-motor (intervention) and motor (control) groups. Intervention included reviewing language-motor curriculums, formative feedback on 4 LENA recordings (baseline, post-curriculum, 4 and 12-months) and 16-weekly language-motor texts. Controls reviewed a motor curriculum, summative feedback of four recordings after study completion and 4-monthly motor texts. Primary outcome was 12-month MacArthur scores. Secondary outcomes were LENA counts and social impacts to language outcomes. A total of 108 infants were randomised. Groups had similar baseline characteristics and LENA counts. Both groups had low maternal Peabody Picture Vocabulary age-equivalents (14.2years). On post-curriculum recording, intervention infants had higher vocalisations (188 vs 109, P=.02) and conversations (49 vs 30, P=.005) than controls. Group 4-month and 12-month LENA counts and 12-month MacArthur scores were similar. In regression analyses, more people in the home and cohabiting with the infant's father were associated with higher MacArthur scores. Linguistic feedback and a simple curriculum resulted in short-term increased vocalisations and conversational turns for infants of adolescent mothers that were not sustained over time. Household characteristics provided protective effects on outcomes.

Parent coaching increases conversational turns and advances infant language development

Parental language input is one of the best predictors of children's language achievement. Parentese, a near-universal speaking style distinguished by higher pitch, slower tempo, and exaggerated intonation, has been documented in speech directed toward young children in many countries. Previous research shows that the use of parentese and parent-child turn-taking are both associated with advances in children's language learning. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to determine whether a parent coaching intervention delivered when the infants are 6, 10, and 14 mo of age can enhance parental language input and whether this, in turn, changes the trajectory of child language development between 6 and 18 mo of age. Families of typically developing 6-mo-old infants (n = 71) were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. Naturalistic first-person audio recordings of the infants' home language environment and vocalizations were recorded when the infants were 6, 10, 14, and 18 mo of age. After the 6-, 10-, and 14-mo recordings, intervention, but not control parents attended individual coaching appointments to receive linguistic feedback, listen to language input in their own recordings, and discuss age-appropriate activities that promote language growth. Intervention significantly enhanced parental use of parentese and parent-child turn-taking between 6 and 18 mo. Increases in both variables were significantly correlated with children's language growth during the same period, and children's language outcomes at 18 mo. Using parentese, a socially and linguistically enhanced speaking style, improves children's social language turn-taking and language skills. Research-based interventions targeting social aspects of parent-child interactions can enhance language outcomes.

Teaching Writing with Language Feedback Technology

Abstract Against the current backdrop of the controversies and concerns over machine scoring, this paper focuses on one specific, less controversial, aspect of how machine can be effective in improving students’ writing, that is in identifying and providing timely feedback on language accuracy to students. This paper investigates the use of a Linguistic Feedback Tool (LiFT) to identify and provide feedback of the use of grammar, spelling, and punctuation in students’ composition as well as the potential reduction in the teacher’s marking time through a study conducted in Singapore schools. Part One of the study explores the teachers and students’ reception as well as the students’ experience of using a LiFT in their compositions. Part Two of the study investigates the hypothesis that the students’ use of a LiFT to review composition drafts before submission to the teachers would reduce the teachers’ marking time. The findings indicate that both teachers and students are receptive to the use of a LiFT to improve students’ English composition and that there are time-saving from marking for the teachers.

The effects of parent coaching on language outcomes at 18 and 24 months: A randomized controlled trial

The prevalence of parentese in speech directed to 11- and 14-month-old infants predicts infants’ concurrent babbling as well as their future language skills at 24 months, suggesting that this speaking style may enhance learning. We recently showed that when parents are “coached” about the importance of language input to infants, and parentese, they increase the proportion of parentese and child-directed speech. This has an immediate and positive effect on child language outcomes at 14 months. In the present study, we asked whether the effects of coaching parents extend to longer-term language outcomes. Families of typically developing 6-month-old infants were assigned to Intervention (parent coaching) and Control (no coaching) groups. Parent coaching took place when infants were 6- 10-, 14- and 18-months of age, and included quantitative and qualitative linguistic feedback derived from each family’s first-person LENA recordings at home. Language outcomes were measured at 18- and 24-months of age. Parent coaching significantly enhanced the percentage of child-directed speech and parentese in parental input between 6 and 18 months in coached vs. uncoached parents. Children of parents who received coaching showed enhanced language outcomes at 18 and 24 months.

Parent coaching at 6 and 10months improves language outcomes at 14months: A randomized controlled trial.

Previous studies reveal an association between particular features of parental language input and advances in children's language learning. However, it is not known whether parent coaching aimed to enhance specific input components would (a) successfully increase these components in parents' language input and (b) result in concurrent increases in children's language development. The present randomized controlled trial assigned families of typically developing 6-month-old infants to Intervention (parent coaching) and Control (no coaching) groups. Families were equivalent on socioeconomic status, infants' gender, and infants' age. Parent coaching took place when infants were 6 and 10months of age, and included quantitative and qualitative linguistic feedback on the amount of child-directed speech, back-and-forth interactions, and parentese speech style. These variables were derived from each family's first-person LENA recordings at home. Input variables and infant language were measured at 6, 10, and 14months. Parent coaching significantly enhanced language input as measured by two social interaction variables: percentage of speech directed to the child and percentage of parentese speech. These two variables were correlated, and were both related to growth in infant babbling between 6 and 14months. Intervention infants showed greater growth in babbling than Control infants. Furthermore, at 14months, Intervention infants produced significantly more words than Control infants, as indicated by LENA recordings and parent report via the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Developmental Inventory. Together, these results indicate that parent coaching can enrich specific aspects of parental language input, and can immediately and positively impact child language outcomes. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/7wqR28gPiwo.

Automated Language Environment Analysis: A Research Synthesis.

The Language Environment Analysis (LENA®) represents a breakthrough in automatic speech detection because it makes one's language environment, what adults and children actually hear and say, efficiently measurable. The purpose of this article was to examine (a) current dimensions of LENA research, (b) LENA's sensitivity to differences in populations and language environments, and (c) what has been achieved in closing the Word Gap. From electronic and human searches, 83 peer-reviewed articles using LENA were identified, and 53 met inclusionary criteria and were included in a systematic literature review. Each article reported results of 1 study. Originally developed to make natural language research more efficient and feasible, systematic review identified a broad landscape of relevant LENA findings focused primarily on the environments and communications of young children but also older adults and teachers. LENA's automated speech indicators (adult input, adult-child interaction, and child production) and the audio environment were shown to meet high validity standards, including accuracy, sensitivity to individual differences, and differences in populations, settings, contexts within settings, speakers, and languages. Researchers' own analyses of LENA audio recordings have extended our knowledge of microlevel processes in adult-child interaction. To date, intervention research using LENA has consisted of small pilot experiments, primarily on the effects of brief parent education plus quantitative linguistic feedback to parents. Evidence showed that automated analysis has made a place in the repertoire of language research and practice. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.

Drawing for others: influence of referential intention in early production of drawings / Dibujar para otros: influencia de la intencionalidad referencial en la producción temprana de dibujos

This study examines if and how the presence of an adult as a receptive agent of children’s drawings has an effect on the early production of pictorial symbols by emphasizing the children’s referential intention as drawers. To this end, we compared three-year-old children’s representational drawings with a model in four experimental conditions, three conditions with an adult as a receptive agent and one condition without a receiver. In the conditions with a receiver (Linguistic Feedback, Graphic Demonstration and Graphic Product) children were explicitly asked to draw for an adult, who had to use the children’s pictures to find hidden objects in identical boxes; the conditions differed in the adult’s actions with non-representational drawings. The results indicate that the presence of the receiver had an impact on representational production only when the adult demonstrated how to create the drawings with the intent of communicating the identity of the objects (Graphic Demonstration). Although drawing is typically viewed as a solitary activity, these results suggest that representational drawings may emerge in communicative contexts between drawers and receivers.