In an increasingly globalized world, linguistic diversity has become both a valuable cultural resource and a complex policy challenge. Globalization, driven by economic integration, migration, technological advancement, and international communication, has intensified contact between languages while simultaneously privileging a small number of global languages. This article examines the relationship between linguistic diversity and language policy in global contexts, focusing on how states and institutions respond to multilingual realities. Drawing on sociolinguistic and language policy frameworks, the study explores the tension between language standardization and linguistic pluralism. Using a qualitative policy-analysis approach, the research analyzes selected national and international language policy documents to identify dominant ideologies, policy objectives, and implementation strategies related to linguistic diversity. The findings reveal that while many language policies rhetorically promote multilingualism and cultural inclusion, in practice they often prioritize economically powerful languages, leading to the marginalization of minority and indigenous languages. The study further demonstrates that language policy functions as an instrument of power, shaping access to education, employment, and social participation. The article argues that effective language policy in a globalized world must move beyond symbolic recognition of diversity and adopt inclusive, context-sensitive strategies that support linguistic rights and sustainable multilingualism. By contributing to debates in sociolinguistics and language policy studies, this research highlights the need for equitable policy frameworks that balance global communication demands with the preservation of linguistic diversity.

The National policy of Education 2020 insists the significance of language in shaping the educational landscape of India, particularly in elementary and preparatory education. This policy encourages the use of mother tongue or regional languages as the medium of instruction, aiming to develop cognitive skills, cultural preservation and inclusive. By adopting a multilingual approach, NEP 2020 seeks a connect the gap between home and school languages, enhancing students’ learning experiences and academic performances. This article explores the role of language in NEP 2020, highlighting its potential benefits, challenges and implications foe elementary and preparatory education in India. The analysis highlights the importance of effective implementation, resource allocation and teacher training to ensure the success of multilingual education initiatives. Ultimately, NEP 2020’s language provisions have the potential to change India’s educational system, promoting linguistic diversity, equity and quality education for all.

ABSTRACT While monoglossic educational approaches continue to marginalise the linguistic resources of multilingual learners, limited research has explored how informal educational settings can disrupt these constraints and actively support cultural identity formation. This qualitative case study examines how a six-week Freedom School summer literacy programme operated as a ‘Third Space’ for Adam, a second-grade Chinese American child who initially resisted his heritage language. Grounded in Third Space Theory and Critical Translingual Literacies as complementary frameworks, the study analyzes how pedagogical design and student agency work recursively to support identity transformation. Drawing on ethnographic observations, video recordings, student artifacts, home visits, and interviews, findings identify four interconnected conditions that fostered Adam's trajectory from linguistic resistance to confident cultural contribution: (1) routine multilingual invitations normalising linguistic diversity, (2) multimodal literacy activities legitimising visual and embodied expression, (3) culturally affirming texts with dialogic facilitation, and (4) family engagement repositioning home knowledge as academically valuable. Findings demonstrate that cultural identity transformation emerges from dynamic interplay between intentionally designed pedagogical spaces and translanguaging practices students enact within them.

To assess the diagnostic performance of two language models, GPT-5 Plus and Gemini 2.5 Flash using a curated benchmark dataset of unseen endodontic and restorative dentistry related clinical case scenarios and the linguistic variations introduced around the original dataset. Additionally, a descriptive qualitative analysis was performed on a subset of cases to evaluate the quality of reasoning generated by both models. One hundred single best answer MCQs were generated using standardised resources, constituting a benchmark dataset. Controlled linguistic variations were introduced around the original dataset; paraphrasing (sentence/clause rewording), perturbation (token-level substitutions), and permutation (answer-order shuffle). These case scenarios were presented to both models using a standardised prompt, and the performance metrics (accuracy/recall, F-1 score) were computed. Agreement between and within models was analysed using Cohen's κ, while paired differences were evaluated using McNemar's test with a significant p-value < 0.05. Qualitative analysis was performed on a subset of the total sample, and the responses were evaluated on a 3-point Likert scale. GPT-5 Plus achieved 80% accuracy on benchmark dataset compared to 66% for Gemini 2.5 Flash (McNemar's p-value = 0.0066). When linguistic variations were introduced, the performance of GPT-5 Plus declined, with perturbation having the most significant effect (McNemar's p-value = 0.003). Gemini 2.5 Flash, on the other hand, though inferior initial performance on benchmark dataset, maintained uniform decision patterns across all transformations with no significant drop further. The descriptive qualitative analysis demonstrated an overall higher proportion of responses rated as good (8/10, 80% for original dataset; 7/10, 70% for linguistic variations) for Gemini 2.5 Flash as opposed to GPT-5 Plus. GPT-5 Plus outperformed Gemini 2.5 Flash on benchmark dataset; however, it was sensitive to linguistic variations. Perturbation negatively influenced the performance of GPT-5 Plus, emphasising the need to further investigate the linguistic phenomenon that may have affected the model's degradation. Additionally, the descriptive qualitative analysis demonstrated relatively higher performance for Gemini 2.5 Flash compared to GPT-5 Plus on the original dataset and across linguistic variations. However, owing to the descriptive nature of findings and limited sample size, the results should be interpreted with caution.

Abstract Situated within the context of escalating student mobility from rural to urban locales, resulting in multilingual tertiary-level classrooms in Pakistan, this investigation addresses the challenges faced by students coming from diverse linguistic and educational backgrounds. Such students, having encountered minimal exposure to English and Urdu during their school education, encounter obstacles in an English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) setting. While the pedagogical approach of translanguaging has received substantial attention in global multilingual classroom contexts, its exploration within local frameworks such as Pakistan remains delimited. This empirical inquiry delves into the linguistic challenges experienced by tertiary level students from Humanities regarding classroom participation, alongside teachers’ integration of the translanguaging approach. Employing a qualitative methodology encompassing non-participatory observations and interviews, the study investigates multifaceted challenges, encompassing vocabulary comprehension, inadequate explication of scientific terms, lack of fluency in the target language, and the marginalisation of those possessing less English and Urdu proficiencies. Although glimpses of translanguaging strategies are visible, their systematic application is conspicuous by its scarcity, primarily attributed to instructors’ lack of awareness and training concerning students’ entire linguistic resource utilisation. The study underscores the importance of acknowledging linguistic capital disparities, recommending the establishment of an inclusive classroom ecology as well as transformative translanguaging pedagogy training to embrace linguistic diversity and create an inclusive learning environment.

This study addresses the education of deaf individuals within the global and Brazilian historical context, from Ancient Egypt to contemporary times, with an emphasis on teaching and learning processes from the perspective of bilingual education. The objective is to understand educational policies aimed at deaf education, to contextualize inclusive education within a bilingual approach in the national scenario, and to reflect on the constitution of bilingual linguistic environments as a pedagogical perspective that values Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) and the Portuguese language. This is a qualitative, exploratory study developed through documentary and bibliographic analysis of books, scientific articles, legislation, and materials available in digital media. The analysis of the historical trajectory of deaf education reveals different pedagogical conceptions, political disputes, and social movements advocating for an education that respects cultural and linguistic diversity and promotes the social, cognitive, and identity development of deaf individuals. The results indicate that Art and Technology are relevant resources within the bilingual proposal, contributing to the organization of visually accessible and linguistically inclusive educational environments, as exemplified by the educational products developed. It is concluded that the implementation of bilingual education for deaf individuals still faces structural challenges, requiring the presence of qualified professionals, training in Libras, and the participation of deaf teachers in the constitution of bilingual educational spaces.

South African higher education is characterized by profound cultural and linguistic diversity, shaped by historical inequality and unequal access to educational resources. Within these contexts, intercultural competence is often assumed to develop through exposure alone; however, such exposure may coexist with comfort zones that limit deeper understanding. This manuscript adopts an Intercultural Positive Autoethnography (IcPosAE) to examine the development of intercultural competence across my life course, culminating in a critical incident during my role as a university tutor in a culturally and linguistically diverse South African institution. Drawing on autobiographical memory, reflexive narrative and positive reflexivity, the autoethnography traces my socialization within an Indian-Muslim household, early encounters with diversity, periods of cultural insulation, and the disruption of these assumptions through a tutoring encounter. Rather than framing this moment as an individual failure, the narrative situates the experience within broader dynamics of language, power, privilege, and institutional responsibility in higher education. Through thick description and analytic reflexivity, this manuscript aims to illustrate how discomfort and miscommunication can become sites of positive intercultural transformation.

Children infer social group attitudes from evaluative behavioral information but do not extend them to unfamiliar group members.

The Air Matoa language, formerly spoken in the Etna Bay region of Kaimana, West Papua, has been classified as extinct since the death of its last speaker in 2017. The extinction represents a significant loss of linguistic diversity and highlights the urgent need to document endangered languages before they disappear. As such, the phonological system of the Air Matoa Language needs to be documented so that it is recorded as a form of linguistic wealth. This study aims to identify and reconstruct the vowels, consonants, and phonotactics of the Air Matoa language based on data collected in 2008 through interviews with the last three native speakers. Using a qualitative approach, which places the researcher as the primary instrument, the study found that not all concepts in the Swadesh list have lexical equivalents in the Air Matoa language due to cultural differences. Overall, ths work identified five vowel phonemes, including: /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/, and /a/, and fifteen consonant phonemes, including: /b/, /d/, /f/, /ɡ/, /j/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /p/, /r/, /s/, /t/, /w/, /y/, and /ŋ/; syllable forms in the Air Matoa language follow the patterns of V, VC, CV, CVC, and CCV. The results of this study are essential for preserving linguistic and cultural heritage, especially for endangered or extinct languages.

Afro-Costa Rican literature has stood out for its valuable contributions to national literature. Among these contributions, it is worth highlighting linguistic, ethnic, and historical diversity, as well as criticism of a society that has long assumed itself to be white and Spanish-speaking. Theoretical and methodological approaches such as ethnocriticism are useful for analyzing literary representations of the diversity of ethnicities that are part of Costa Rican culture, especially given the conflicting dynamics they raise. In this context, few studies have so far articulated Costa Rican texts written in different languages, which becomes possible and necessary through the analysis of a corpus of Afro-Costa Rican literature. Therefore, this article seeks to analyze the self-representations and hetero-representations of ethnicities in the Costa Rican short stories “Duelo entre amigos” (1970) by Quince Duncan and “Adina” (1984) by Dolores Joseph Montout from an ethnocritical perspective. Based on this study, it is evident that the stories shape decolonial and anti-racist perspectives, problematizing Costa Rican national ideals through plurality and diversity, as well as taking a stand against injustice and inequality.

Globalisation and rapid technological expansion continue to reshape linguistic structures, identities, and communicative functions across Romance and Germanic languages. These processes intensify multilingual interaction, alter digital visibility, and transform the relationship between demographic prominence and technological representation. The present study aims to examine how linguistic identity, digital inclusion, and structural resilience evolve under these global dynamics, with particular emphasis on the changing position of European languages in the digital environment. This research is designed as a systematic review following PRISMA principles, supplemented by secondary statistical analysis. While global indicators are used to position Romance and Germanic languages within the broader digital hierarchy, the analytical focus centres primarily on the European linguistic context. Therefore, the distinction between global and Europe-specific datasets is explicitly maintained throughout the study to ensure scope consistency and interpretive clarity. The review covers publications from 2018 to 2025 and draws on databases including Scopus, Web of Science, LLBA, and ERIC. It incorporates transparent inclusion and exclusion criteria, multi-stage screening, and a coding protocol grounded in linguistic, sociocultural, and technological indicators. Statistical data were retrieved from UNESCO UIS, W3Techs, Eurostat, and Ethnologue, with validation conducted in January–February 2025. The results show that while English maintains disproportionate dominance in digital spaces, Romance and Germanic languages demonstrate strong adaptive capacity through structural stability, hybridisation practices, and expanding digital resources. The synthesis highlights enduring grammatical resilience, uneven digital representation, and the importance of multilingual educational ecosystems. These findings indicate that sustainable linguistic development depends on inclusive digital infrastructures and equitable technological support that preserve linguistic diversity while enabling global participation.

Higher education should serve as a transmitter of knowledge and values while promoting cultural pluralism that goes beyond the normative values and cultural standard of the majority culture. The research of the linguistic landscape of educationscapes (Krompák et al. 2022) highlights the symbolic significance of these environments. Drawing on the idea that educationscapes transmit multicultural and multilingual values, this study offers a comparative analysis of the linguistic landscape of three higher education institutions in Romania with study programmes in Hungarian: the University of Medicine in Târgu-Mureș, Babeș–Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca, and Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania. It examines the transmission of multicultural and multilingual values through the linguistic landscapes of these universities and how institutional signage reflects or contradicts official commitments to linguistic diversity. Drawing on the Multilingual Inequality in Public Spaces (MIPS) model, the study integrates three data sources: policy documents, photographic documentation of signage (n ≈ 250–300 per site), and semi-structured interviews with Hungarian minority students. Findings reveal a discrepancy between institutional language policies and actual linguistic visibility. Romanian predominates in top-down signage, even in officially multicultural universities, while Hungarian is often marginal or absent. English signage may supersede Hungarian, reflecting internationalization priorities. Student interviews underscore the symbolic importance of signage in shaping perceptions of inclusion, recognition, and identity, while demonstrating a critical awareness of linguistic hierarchies.

ABSTRACT English occupies a complex position in postcolonial societies, functioning both as a global resource and a reminder of colonial hierarchies. In Kenya, where it holds official status alongside Swahili and coexists with rich local linguistic diversity, English represents both opportunity and inequality. This study examines language ideologies towards English among young, educated Kenyans, exploring how multilinguals negotiate its dual role as a colonial inheritance and a medium of socioeconomic mobility. Data were collected through qualitative interviews with 21 participants. Findings confirm a prevailing appreciation of English as a pathway to education, employment, and global engagement, yet participants also expressed concern about its potential to displace Kenyan local languages and cultural identity. This ambivalence emerges as a form of linguistic resilience, through which speakers reconcile inherited colonial hierarchies with contemporary global aspirations. Rather than viewing English as oppressive or emancipatory, participants articulated a desire for balanced multilingualism and inclusive language policies that sustain local linguistic vitality while enabling global participation. The study contributes to sociolinguistic and postcolonial scholarship by demonstrating how ideological ambivalence operates as an adaptive strategy within multilingual ecologies. It argues that fostering a functional equilibrium between English and local languages can promote both social mobility and cultural continuity.

Mapping clinical classification systems, such as the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), is essential yet challenging. While the manual mapping method remains labor-intensive and lacks scalability, existing embedding-based automatic mapping methods, particularly those leveraging transformer-based pretrained encoders, encounter 2 persistent challenges: (1) linguistic variation and (2) varying granular details in clinical conditions. We introduce an automatic mapping method that combines the representational power of pretrained encoders with the reasoning capability of large language models (LLMs). For each ICD code, we generate: (1) hierarchy-augmented (HA) and (2) LLM-generated (LG) descriptions to capture rich semantic nuances, addressing linguistic variation. Furthermore, we introduced a prompting framework (PR) that leverages LLM reasoning to handle granularity mismatches, including source-to-parent mappings. Chapterwise mappings were performed between ICD versions (ICD-9-CM↔ICD-10-CM and ICD-10-AM↔ICD-11) using multiple LLMs. The proposed approach consistently outperformed the baseline across all ICD pairs and chapters. For example, combining HA descriptions with Qwen3-8B-generated descriptions yielded an average top-1 accuracy improvement of 6.5% (0.065) across the mapping cases. A small-scale pilot study further indicated that HA+LG remains effective in more challenging one-to-many mappings. Our findings demonstrate that integrating the representational power of pretrained encoders with LLM reasoning offers a robust, scalable strategy for automatic ICD mapping.

Leveraging Large Language Models to Harmonize Linguistic Variation in Radiology Reporting: Insights From RadLex Terms Applied to Chest CT.

Introduction. The sustainable development of the university educational environment is connected with the issues of preservation and multiplication of linguistic and cultural diversity. Networking and academic mobility enrich the university setting. Bilingualism becomes an increasingly widespread phenomenon, articulating the question of self-identification of the author of a bilingual text. Objective. The study analyses bilingual texts in the context of the role they play in the formation of the learner's worldview and their perception of linguistic and cultural diversity. Materials and Methods. In the first stage of the study, the texts of the novel by G. Braschi "Yo-yo boing!" (1998) and the popular science work by M. Kopatz "Schluss mit der Ökomoral! Wie wir die Welt retten, ohne ständig daran zu denken" (2019) were analyzed. At this stage, linguistic, component, distributional and linguodidactic analysis was applied. The attitude of a group of students towards bilingual texts was then evaluated using the reflective method. Results. Specific types of code-switching in Spanglish and Denglish translingual idioms are shown. It was revealed that the most frequent type of code-switching occurs between words and phrases. The second most significant is intra-sentential code-switching. Finally, there is intersentential code-switching. In the context of analyzing the linguodidactic potential of bilingual texts in translation and intercultural communication classes, it is determined that the vast majority of the respondent learners have changed their perceptions and attitudes towards bilingualism and linguistic diversity. Discussion. Bilingual texts are an important source of information for the development of the linguistic picture of the world and cultural identification of a modern student, as well as an interesting and non-standard linguodidactic resource. The use of such texts in translation and intercultural communication classes fosters an inclusive environment, embraces academic mobility, and expands students' understanding of the richness of languages and cultures.

This study presents a detailed examination of the nouns used by the Laz and Homshetsma-speaking communities in the Kemalpaşa district of Artvin, Türkiye. It aims to document and analyze the lexical features of these two endangered minority languages, which belong to the South Caucasian and Indo-European language families, respectively. The Black Sea region’s complex linguistic landscape results from historical migrations and interactions among various ethnic groups (Kırzıoğlu, 1976; Simonian, 2007). Using a lexical atlas approach, this research maps out the vocabulary differences and similarities between Laz and Homshetsma speakers in Kemalpaşa. Data collection involved extensive fieldwork, including interviews and data elicitation with Laz and Homshetsma native speakers. By highlighting the unique lexical traits of Laz and Homshetsma, the study also sheds light on the broader sociolinguistic dynamics of the region, offering insights into language contact, shift, and maintenance. The findings underscore the importance of cultural and linguistic diversity, advocating for policies that support the preservation of minority languages in Türkiye. This initial volume sets the stage for further comparative studies across different regions inhabited by Laz and Homshetsma speakers. This atlas serves as a crucial resource for linguists and anthropologists interested in the Caucasian linguistic area, contributing to the preservation and understanding of these endangered languages.

This article examines the trends, distribution, and frequency of possessive adjectives (e.g., su casa), possessive periphrasis (e.g., la casa suya), and prepositional constructions introduced by de (e.g., la casa de él/ella) as variants for expressing nominal possession in the Spanish of the Colombian Orinoquía region (Casanare, Meta, and Vichada). Based on a corpus of field interviews, frequency maps were created to reveal both the existence of the variants and their usage distribution. The findings confirmed speakers' preference for adjectival forms, followed by periphrasis and prepositional forms, the latter being more frequent in second and third person contexts, particularly in third person as a strategy to disambiguate su or suyo. Statistical analyses demonstrated the influence of various sociolinguistic factors, such as gender, education, and place of upbringing, on the use of these variants. This pioneering study contributes to the understanding of Spanish morphosyntax in a little-explored geographical region, thereby broadening the perspective on linguistic varieties in Colombia.

This article explores the discourse construction of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as represented within Chinese and US mainstream media. The study uses a corpus-based discourse-historical approach to compare the nomination and predicative strategies employed in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict discourse. In doing so, we used a self-built corpus of Chinese media reports on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and a corpus of US media reports. The findings of the study indicate that Chinese and US media prioritize distinct primary social actors. Chinese media often portray Israel as the “out-group” and Palestine as the “in-group,” emphasizing China's dedication to peace, justice, and the pursuit of a comprehensive, equitable, and nonviolent resolution to the Palestinian issue. In contrast, US media present a more nuanced portrayal of Israel and Palestine as both “in-group” and “out-group” entities; however, they accord greater prominence to Israel's “in-group” image and Palestine's “out-group” image, thereby mirroring the United States’ explicit pro-Israel position and its diplomatic commitments to counterterrorism and the promotion of international humanitarian principles. The study makes a substantial contribution by elucidating the linguistic variations in the discourse construction of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict within Chinese and US mainstream media.

The article examines the phenomenon of linguistic variation as a fundamental property of a living literary language and an object of various linguistic studies. The concept of linguistic variability is analyzed, and a distinction is made between variology (the study of the universal ability of language to vary) and variantology (the theory of lexical modifications of a word). Three types of variation are distinguished: formal, semantic and functional. The article pays special attention to the problem of distinguishing between variance and related linguistic phenomena – synonymy, linguistic differentiation, suppletion. It is argued that formal changes accompanied by stylistic or functional differences should be classified as linguistic differentiation. The main features of formal lexical variants are established: high reproducibility, identical structure, and the same meaning. It is noted that formal variability can be transformed into differentiation or synonymy.