Linear Syntax Research Articles

Mismatch between syntax and prosody and complex sentence structure in Hittite

Abstract Hittite attests a set of complex sentences in which (mostly) relative clauses (other subordinate clauses are also attested) appear in linear syntax to be within another subordinate (usually conditional, rarely temporal) clause or main clause. The relative clause can be preceded by a very limited array of constituents from the matrix clause, e.g., mān ‘if’ or the quotative particle ⸗wa(r). There are also examples which attest the conditional subordinator and the irrealis particle in two positions simultaneously, at the left edge of the whole sentence and in the conditional clause (= main clause for the relative clause). I provide a fine-grained descriptive and structural analysis of the structure and show that the type cannot be explained as bare indefinites, embedded relative clauses or parenthetic clauses. It is shown that, structurally, the sentences containing subordinate (mostly relative) clauses within other clauses are heterogenous and of three types. The difference lies in the elements that precede the relative clause and in the structure of the sentences, whereby a standard Hittite relative clause adjoins at different heights. All three types display the same mismatch between prosodic domains and syntax/semantics—the constituent that is part of the main clause from the semantic and syntactic perspective is prosodically part of the relative clause. Since there is a clause boundary delimiting the end of the subordinate clause within the main clause, it makes sense to treat the surface structure as a distinct taxonomic unit, which is correspondingly labelled a mismatch sentence. The new evidence allows us to obtain a fuller understanding of the Hittite left periphery than was previously possible. It thus offers an important window into hitherto unrecognized aspects of the underlying structure of the complex sentence in Hittite.

How long are the vocal sequences a passerine bird can memorize? Common song sequences of Radde’s warbler males (Phylloscopus schwarzi) (Passeriformes, Aves)

In most passerine species, an individual bird sings multiple song types to be combined into non-random song sequences. Because of this non-randomness, stereotype sequences of several or even dozens of song types appear in the vocalization of some species. Passerine birds acquire songs through some learning process while imitating other individuals. Song sharing is well known in songbirds and is a consequence of the song learning. Apparently, above the song type level, transitions between song types may be also shared. However, we still do not know exactly, how long are those song sequencies a bird can memorize? We analyze song sequence sharing in Radde’s warbler. Each song of this species consists of a dozen of short notes and lasts 1 s. In many males, the identity of the next song type in a sequence can be predicted on the basis of the previous song type (linear syntax). We found that males can share (i.e. memorize) song sequences from no more than 5 song types. Individual repertoires included up to 40 song types. Therefore, the ability of memorizing song sequences are rather limited in Radde’s warbler, as shared song sequences were rather short in comparison with the total size of the repertoire.

Engraving’s “Immoveable Veil”: Phillis Wheatley’s Portrait and the Politics of Technique

The frontispiece of Phillis Wheatley’s Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral (1773), added to increase the book’s humanitarian and commercial appeal, is an important “first” of Black portraiture. Yet surprisingly little attention has been paid to the engraved representation of the poet’s dark skin and its contribution to her complicated reception. While engraving’s abstractions had long been used to commemorate idealized (white) individuals, an Enlightenment understanding of corporeal skin as a changeable surface meant that engraving’s linear syntax also lent itself to derogatory characterizations of Black skin as an “immoveable veil” that masks the expressions of Black subjects.

How theoretical is your (historical) syntax? Towards a typology of Verb-Third in Early Old High German

Verb-Third (V3) constructions, i.e. root clauses displaying more than one element in their prefield, have been attested throughout the history of German. In this paper, I discuss some methodological issues related to the investigation of this structure in Early Old High German (EOHG, eighth to ninth century). In this language stage, the linear syntax of matrix clauses is very unstable—mainly due to the not-yet complete systematization of the V2/verb-final distinction and to the considerable amount of extraposition in main clauses—which makes the detection of this construction in the available texts particularly challenging. Moreover, little substantial and reliable prose data are extant for this period. In order to get a realistic picture of the distribution of the phenomenon at stake in EOHG, it is therefore necessary to evaluate the data by means of diagnostic tests for verb movement and only consider those cases in which the verb is unambiguously located in C and the preverbal area hosts multiple (head or non-head) elements. I will show that: (1) some of the patterns that are usually assumed to be good candidates for the category of V3 in the relevant literature are never attested in the diagnostic dataset; (2) a typology consisting of five non-correlative and three correlative diagnostic V3 constructions can be identified on the basis of an approach based on replicable methods; (3) some of these patterns display historical continuity; (4) non-prose texts are inadequate for syntactic investigations.

Software for designing a port railway station

The subject of the research is programming the problem of designing a port station and calculating its key parameters. The relevance of the research topic is related to the need to automate a complex of complex calculations that can be performed more quickly and accurately using a software product. Methods dynamic and linear programming, syntax and tools of the Visual Basic 6.0 programming language, analytical, marketing, and project methods, materials of general access and official sites, own research used. The software product for automating the calculation of technical and operational parameters of the port station is described. The results of the calculation can be applied when constructing a continuous schedule for the operation of a transport hub, a diagram of daily wagon flows in the station. Using the program, you can determine the number and length of tracks for receiving, sending and sorting trains by station. The software product can be useful both in the educational process of secondary and higher education, and in practical business when making business decisions on the organization of the work of both the port station and the transport hub as a whole.

Automation of calculation of technical and operational parameters of a railway cargo terminal

Research is the automation of decision-making on the justification of the type of unloading section of the terminal for single-piece cargo — external or internal input of the railway track is rational according to the criterion of minimum total costs. The relevance of the research topic is associated with the widespread solution of this type of business problems in the modern conditions of the transport and warehouse market. Cargo terminals connect modes of transport and transform cargo flows, which determines both the key position of cargo terminals in modern supply chains, and the complexity of tasks to be solved in their design. For operational management of transport and logistics processes, it is necessary to quickly make business decisions, which can be provided by software implementation of a number of settlement procedures.Used dynamic and linear programming, syntax and tools of the Pascal ABC programming language, analytical, marketing, and project methods; materials of general access and official sites, own research.A software product for automating the calculation of technical and operational parameters of a railway cargo terminal is described. The program allows you to calculate a set of technical and economic parameters of the cargo terminal operation, in particular, the size of the annual car traffic, the required length of the railway unloading section, as well as annual operating (production) costs and capital costs for the construction of the car unloading section by options.The software product can be useful both in the educational process of secondary and higher education, and in practical business when making business decisions on planning the operation of a cargo terminal.

Щодо укладання електронного словника моделей багатокомпонентних складних речень української мови

The purpose of this study is to construct an automatic syntactic analysis (ASA) and, as a result, to compile a dictionary of models of multicomponent complex sentences for studying the fectures of the linear structure of Ukrainian text. The process includes two-stages: the first stage is an automatic syntactic analysis of the hierarchical type which results in building of a dependency tree (DT), in the second stage, the sentence structure information is automatically extracted from the obtained graph. ASA is a package of operations performed with a string of morphological information (the result of AMA work) representing the incoming text for determination of syntactic relations between text units. The outgoing text for the ACA is a string of information reduced after the AMA to wordforms. We have studied features of the linear structure of 2000 Ukrainian language sentences in journalistic genre (selection of 52000 words use). Based on the obtained results, we have constructed the real models of the syntactic structure of sentences, in which the relations between simple clauses were presented. All grammatical situations of the linear context were possible manifestations of models in the text. Based on that data, the algorithm for the automatic generation of a complex sentence model was created. These models are linear syntax grammar. All types of syntactic connection between the main and subordinate clauses are recorded algorithmically. Thus, it is possible to build the interpretations of the linear structure of the Ukrainian language sentence almost not using lexical-semantic information. The theoretical value of the paper is in extension of our knowledge about the structure of the syntactic level of the language and the variety of mechanisms functioning at that level. The applied value, is first of all, in creation of the dictionary of compatibility of compound (coordinated) and complex (subordinated) sentences, and in the possibility of constructing requests to the Ukrainian language Corpus in order to mine from the text definite models sentences, creating own dictionaries of authors and styles.

Music syntactic processing

Music Syntax refers to the principle of combining discrete key elements into hierarchical system. Organization of pitches based on tonality harmony is the most important music syntax which affects the expectation, the construction and the feedback on the music events of the audience from which aesthetic musical experience is finally produced. Lerdahl and Jackendoff proposed a musical tree-structure that parallel to linguistic syntax in their generative theory of tonal music (GTTM). And Rohrmeier further specified hierarchical generativerules of pitch syntax in the generative syntax model (GSM). Both the GTTM and the GSM put forward the analogy between music syntax and linguistic syntax. But what is obviously different from language processing is that the processing of music syntax of the audience reveals a cross-empiricalness effects. Whether in early studies of behavioristics or in recent studies of EPR, most evidences support that there is a syntax diagram guiding people’s musical expectations without much association with their musical experiences among western audience, at least in the sense of simple linear syntax. Therefore, the acquisition of music syntax under the non-explicit conditions arouses researchers’ thinking on music syntax processing mechanism. Current studies have not reached a consensus on processing of syntactic structure, and two antagonistic theories “Cognitivism” and “Physicalism” have generated. “Cognitivism” put forward that since pitch syntax reflects abstract cognitive structural relations between sounds and meanings, syntactic integration requires the help of scheme drive of long-term memory, of which MUSACT and the shared syntactic integration resource hypothesis (SSIRH) are the representative theories. While “Physicalism” considered that it only needs the help of short-term memory in perception drive because pitch syntax has a property of psychoacoustics derived from voice frequency. And the periodicity pitch model (PP) and its derivate, the auditory short-term memory (ASTM), are the representative theories. Both theories demonstrated their viewpoints respectively from the angle of theoretical model, behavioral studies and cognitive neuroscience.

Syntax of complex bird song in the large-billed reed warbler (Acrocephalus orinus)

Among songbirds there are species with rich and variable repertoires and very complex sequences of sounds that are hard to analyse. Here, we investigate repertoire and syntax organization in the large-billed reed warbler advertising vocalization. We provide the first detailed qualitative and quantitative description of a song of a recently rediscovered species with the analysis of song syntax by clustering. The song of A. orinus combines discrete and continuous types of singing. Although the vocalization can be produced continuously for minutes without any significant pauses, it is easy to split it into distinctive songs using the criterion of 500 ms pause. Songs themselves are grouped into song classes. Both songs and song classes are unique to each individual, though several simple notes could be shared between males. Linear syntax is found both in sequences of syllables and in sequences of songs. Each song starts with initiator syllable types. We also discovered the presence of the transitional songs that sometimes separate songs from different classes in the vocal stream. The repertoire size in our sample varies from 69 to 147 syllable types and from 10 to 24 song classes, and does not depend on the duration of recording. Only one male’s repertoire was estimated entirely. This male was singing alone while other males sang in the presence of other individuals. We discuss how the presence of listeners may affect the repertoire and temporal and sequential organization of the song.

Complementation in linear and dialogic syntax: The case of Hebrew divergently aligned discourse

AbstractThis study investigates the interaction between linear and dialogic syntax in Hebrew conversation. Analyzing resonance in divergently aligned contexts, we examine a particular dialogic modification of complex syntactic constructions: the embedding of one construction within the scope of another. Specifically, we examine a family of constructions which, in the terms of linear syntax, are analyzed as forms of complementation (via the complementizer še- ‘that’, via a question word, or via the conditional conjunction 'im ‘if ’). However, the dialogic alignment of these forms with their preceding utterances reflects a complex picture, in which some patterns are still definable by linear syntax, but others are not accounted for by these traditional terms. Rather, the application of the Dialogic Syntax framework calls into question defining such constructions from a purely structural perspective and supports a more fluid, Emergent Grammar approach. Moreover, we illustrate how dialogic actions in fact motivate the interaction-based grammaticization of new constructions, culminating, in the case of the constructions examined here, in the emergence of discourse markers.

Towards a dialogic syntax

AbstractThis paper argues for the need to recognize a new order of syntactic phenomena, and for a theory of syntax capable of addressing it. Dialogic syntax encompasses the linguistic, cognitive, and interactional processes involved when speakers selectively reproduce aspects of prior utterances, and when recipients recognize the resulting parallelisms and draw inferences from them. Its most visible reflex occurs when one speaker constructs an utterance based on the immediately co-present utterance of a dialogic partner. Words, structures, and other linguistic resources invoked by the first speaker are selectively reproduced by the second. The alignment of utterances yields a pairing of patterns at varying levels of abstraction, ranging from identity of words and affixes, to parallelism of syntactic structures, to equivalence of grammatical categories and abstract features of form, meaning, and function. This mapping generates dialogic resonance, defined as the catalytic activation of affinities across utterances. The key unit of analysis is the diagraph, recognized as a higher-order, supra-sentential syntactic structure that emerges from the structural coupling of two or more utterances. Dialogic syntax goes beyond traditional linear syntax to recognize as integral to the task of syntactic analysis a new kind of structural relation that arises between otherwise independent sentences.

Towards a ‘Real Character’ for the Computer Age

This paper deals with the theory of a ‘Real Character,’ that is to say, a form of writing which conveys ideas, rather than sounds, and the possible application of such a system to computer- mediated communication. The need for increasingly efficient international communication is noted and the idea of ‘iconicity’ is incorporated into the argument, together with the narrower idea of the ‘symbol’ as defined by the semiotician Charles Sanders Peirce. Historical antecedents from the seventeenth century onwards are examined, as are present-day artificial languages. Modern research into semantic primes is linked to work on visual primes. The notion of ‘the sentence-as-character,’ is proposed, a format which dispenses with the need for linear syntax. The question of metaphorical meaning is discussed in the light of theories of embodiment. In order to facilitate speedy reading, on-screen Rapid Serial Visual Presentation of texts with animation, colour and 3-D is proposed. Technological issues of computer implementation and further development are raised, ways forward are examined, and cultural and linguistic problems tabled for further consideration.

ASCIIMathML: now everyone can type MathML

As explained in the previous articles in this series [1] and [2], it is extremely cumbersome to type MathML directly. This article describes a simple linear syntax which can be transformed into MathML. Using this syntax, it is easy to write a web page containing MathML. However, the really exciting thing about ASCIIMathML is that it allows you to create dynamic web pages where the person viewing the web page can themselves generate (good looking) mathematics on the page (for example as an answer to a question). This makes ASCIIMathML particularly well suited for interactive student web pages and as a tool for electronic mathematical communication. Indeed this was the aim of the original creator of ASCIIMathML, Peter Jipsen at Chapmann University and some of the applications he has designed for students are mentioned in Section 4 of this article. (Note: ASCIIMathML is also called ASCIIMath and I will use both names.)

Linear syntax for communicating elementary mathematics

We consider computer aided assessment (CAA) of mathematics in which a student provides an answer in the form of a mathematical expression. A common approach is for CAA system implementors to adopt a linear syntax to allow students to communicate their answer to the machine. In this paper we consider the problems students encounter when mediating between (i) traditional mathematical notation and (ii) the requirements of a strict computer algebra system (CAS) syntax. We compare the linear syntaxes of five commonly used general purpose CAS, and report surprising variety even at the elementary levels.

The DSD Schema Language

XML (Extensible Markup Language), a linear syntax for trees, has gathered a remarkable amount of interest in industry. The acceptance of XML opens new venues for the application of formal methods such as specification of abstract syntax tree sets and tree transformations. A user domain may be specified as a set of trees. For example, XHTML is a user domain corresponding to a set of XML documents that make sense as hypertext. A notation for defining such a set of XML trees is called a i>schema language. We believe that a useful schema notation must identify most of the syntactic requirements present in the user domains, and yet be sufficiently simple and easy to understand both by the schema authors and the users. Furthermore, it must allow efficient parsing and be modular and extensible to support reuse and evolution of descriptions. In the present paper, we give a tutorial introduction to the DSD (Document Structure Description) notation as our bid on how to meet these requirements. The DSD notation was inspired by industrial needs. We show how DSDs help manage aspects of complex XML software through a case study about interactive voice response systems, i.e., automated telephone answering systems, where input is through the telephone keypad or speech recognition. The expressiveness of DSDs goes beyond the DTD schema concept that is already part of XML. We advocate the use of nonterminals in a top-down manner, coupled with boolean logic and regular expressions to describe how constraints on tree nodes depend on their context. We also support a general, declarative mechanism for inserting default elements and attributes. Also, we include a simple technique for reusing and evolving DSDs through selective redefinitions. The expressiveness of DSD is comparable to that of the schema language XML Schema proposed by W3C, but their syntactic and semantic definition is significantly larger and more complex. Also, the DSD notation is self-describable: the syntax of legal DSD documents including all static semantic requirements can be expressed within the DSD language itself.

A Novel Linear Code Nomenclature for Complex Carbohydrates.

The Linear Code is a new syntax for representing glycoconjugates and their associated molecules in a simple linear fashion. Similar to the straightforward single letter nomenclature of DNA and proteins, Linear Code presents glycoconjugates in a canonic, compact and practical form while accounting for all relevant stereochemical and structural configurations. It uses a single letter code to represent each monosaccharide and includes a condensed description of the connections between monosaccharides and their modifications, allowing a simple linear representation of these compounds. The new linear syntax enables the implementation of bioinformatics tools for investigation and analysis of glyco-molecules and their biology.

The DSD Schema Language and its Applications

XML (eXtensible Markup Language), a linear syntax for trees, has gathered a remarkable amount of interest in industry. The acceptance of XML opens new venues for the application of formal methods such as specification of abstract syntax tree sets and tree transformations. A user domain may be specified as a set of trees. For example, XHTML is a user domain corresponding to the set of XML documents that make sense as<br />HTML. A notation for defining such a set of XML trees is called a schema language. We believe that a useful schema notation must identify most of the syntactic<br />requirements that the documents in the user domain follow; allow efficient parsing; be readable to the user; allow a declarative default notation `a la CSS; and be<br />modular and extensible to support evolving classes of XML documents. In the present paper, we give a tutorial introduction to the DSD (Document Structure Description) notation as our bid on how to meet these requirements. The<br />DSD notation was inspired by industrial needs, and we show how DSDs help manage aspects of complex XML software through a case study about interactive voice<br />response systems (automated telephone answering systems, where input is through the telephone keypad or speech recognition). The expressiveness of DSDs goes beyond the DTD schema concept that is already<br />part of XML. We advocate the use of nonterminals in a top-down manner, coupled with boolean logic and regular expressions to describe how constraints on tree nodes depend on their context. We also support a general, declarative mechanism for inserting default elements and attributes that is reminiscent of Cascading<br />Style Sheets (CSS), a way of manipulating formatting instructions in HTML that is built into all modern browsers. Finally, we include a simple technique for evolving DSDs through selective redefinitions. DSDs are in many ways much more expressive than XML Schema (the schema language proposed by the W3C), but their syntactic and semantic definition in English is only 1/8th the size. Also, the DSD notation is self-describable: the syntax of legal DSD documents and all static semantic requirements can be captured in a DSD document, called the meta-DSD.

Left-Associative Grammar: An informal outline

The surface structures of natural language are linear. When we utter or understand a sentence, we process it word by word, starting at the beginning. But the associated semantic structures are hierarchical, expressed in terms of trees or set-theoretic relations. The correlation between linear syntax and hierarchical semantics is investigated in Left-Associative Grammar and the associated NEWCAT parsing algorithm. This paper gives a general outline of the linguistic theory. The formal algebraic and automata theoretic definitions will be presented in a second paper (Hausser, forthcoming), to appear in next issue of CaT.