Linear Growth In Early Childhood Research Articles

Examining maternal depression, birthweight and linear growth: Findings from the South African National Income Dynamics Study

Background. Literature is inconclusive regarding an association between maternal depression, low birthweight (LBW) and stunting in early childhood. While some studies have found an association, others have not. Maternal food insecurity is a risk factor for both maternal depression and reduced linear growth in early childhood. 
 Objective. This study examined the relationship between maternal depression, food insecurity, LBW and stunting in the first five years of life. The study employed longitudinal data of South African women and children from the National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS). 
 Methods. Mothers were classified into four groups: food insecure and depressed; food insecure only; depressed only; and neither food insecure nor depressed. During data collection, 22% of women were pregnant and the remaining 78% were pre-conception. The primary outcomes were low birthweight and height-for-age (HAZ) scores. Generalised Linear Mixed Effects (GLME) models were used to account for women having more than one child. GLME models with a Gaussian link function were used to compare mean differences in birthweight and HAZ scores. Multivariable regression models were used to examine factors associated with depression. 
 Results. Food insecurity was significantly associated with depression among pre-conceptional and pregnant women. There was no statistically significant difference in birthweight or linear growth across groups, but this may be influenced by proximity of depression measurement in relation to outcomes. 
 Conclusion. Food insecurity is a potentially modifiable risk factor for depression and may be a confounding factor in studies that have found associations between depression and child health outcomes.

Body size and composition of Samoan toddlers aged 18–25 months in 2019

Background The “Foafoaga O le Ola (Beginning of Life)” study is a prospective birth cohort of n = 160 Samoan mother-infant dyads established in 2017–2018. A primary study aim is to explore how a missense variant at CREBRF rs373863828 impacts growth in early life, given its association with increased body size but lower risk of diabetes in adult Samoans. Here, we examine body size and composition by genotype among toddlers aged 18.7–24.5 months. Methods Height, weight, head circumference, mid-upper-arm circumference, and abdominal circumference, as well as subscapular, triceps, iliac crest and thigh skinfold thickness were measured among 107 toddlers with known rs373863828 genotype; 42 of these toddlers completed dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans from which body composition (total body less head fat mass, lean mass, bone mass, % fat mass and % fat-free mass) was estimated. Results After controlling for sex and age, toddlers with at least one copy of the CREBRF minor allele (AA/AG) were 1.31 cm taller (SE = 0.64, p = 0.045) than toddlers with the GG genotype. Conclusion Whether greater linear growth in early childhood could contribute to the metabolically protective effects associated with the CREBRF variant in adulthood should be explored in future studies.

Linear Growth Trajectories in Early Childhood and Adult Cognitive and Socioemotional Functioning in a Guatemalan Cohort

BackgroundGrowth faltering in early childhood is associated with poor human capital attainment, but associations of linear growth in childhood with executive and socioemotional functioning in adulthood are understudied. ObjectivesIn a Guatemalan cohort, we identified distinct trajectories of linear growth in early childhood, assessed their predictors, and examined associations between growth trajectories and neurodevelopmental outcomes in adulthood. We also assessed the mediating role of schooling on the association of growth trajectories with adult cognitive outcomes. MethodsIn 2017–2019, we prospectively followed 1499 Guatemalan adults who participated in a food supplementation trial in early childhood (1969–1977). We derived height-for-age sex-specific growth trajectories from birth to 84 mo using latent class growth analysis. ResultsWe identified 3 growth trajectories (low, intermediate, high) with parallel slopes and intercepts already differentiated at birth in both sexes. Children of taller mothers were more likely to belong to the high and intermediate trajectories [relative risk ratio (RRR): 1.21; 95% CI: 1.15, 1.26, and RRR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.07, 1.15, per 1-cm increase in height, respectively] compared with the low trajectory. Children in the wealthiest compared with the poorest socioeconomic tertile were more likely to belong to the high trajectory compared with the low trajectory (RRR: 2.24; 95% CI: 1.29, 3.88). In males, membership in the high compared with low trajectory was positively associated with nonverbal fluid intelligence, working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility at ages 40–57 y. Sex-adjusted results showed that membership in the high compared with low trajectory was positively associated with meaning and purpose scores at ages 40–57 y. Associations of intermediate compared with low growth trajectories with study outcomes were also positive but of lesser magnitude. Schooling partially mediated the associations between high and intermediate growth trajectories and measures of cognitive ability in adulthood. ConclusionsModifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors predicted growth throughout childhood. Membership in the high and intermediate growth trajectories was positively associated with adult cognitive and socioemotional functioning.

Stunting of Growth in Developing Countries.

Introduction In 2019, 144 million children were stunted i.e. length for age more than 2 standard deviations below the median for the World Health Organisation (WHO) growth reference standards. The rate of decline required to meet the target of reducing the number of under 5’s who are stunted globally to 100 million by 2025 has not been achieved [1]. Progress has been particularly slow in sub-Saharan Africa that remains one of the regions with the highest burden of the problem. In 2020, this will be compounded by the impact of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-Co-V2) pandemic that has diminished livelihoods in many already vulnerable communities and significantly reduced access to, and coverage of, maternal and child health services particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), therefore increasing both poverty and food insecurity [2]. Stunting is an indicator of chronic malnutrition that is associated with adverse health and cognitive outcomes during childhood that persist into adulthood. Greater efforts are therefore required to understand the complex mechanisms of early childhood stunting, factors that influence its persistence in certain populations despite apparent reductions in poverty within regions and countries, to inform the design and implementation of future interventions. In this chapter, we have selected recently published papers on stunting and growth in childhood based on research that seeks to elucidate the mechanisms of early childhood stunting and its impact on adolescent growth and pubertal development. We also include recent data on regional patterns of childhood stunting highlighting how between and within country inequities influence the trends that are observed over time. In addition, we include studies that explore the impact of economic growth on childhood stunting particularly across sub-Saharan African countries. We include data on recently completed intervention trials of both nutrition-sensitive and nutrition-specific interventions targeted at various timepoints in the lifespan including preconception, pregnancy and early infancy. One of the trials goes beyond reporting of the efficacy results alone and provides data on stakeholder (including both policy makers and the caregivers) perceptions of cost-effectiveness of the intervention therefore providing key data to inform implementation. Finally, in the perspectives we have included the insights on water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions from three trials conducted in countries with high rates of childhood stunting - WASH-Benefits Bangladesh, WASH-Benefits Kenya and the Sanitation Hygiene Infant Nutrition Efficacy (SHINE) in Zimbabwe. There was no evidence from these trials that low-cost water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions alone or combined with nutrition (maternal and child) interventions sufficiently improved linear growth in early childhood in LMICs. The concept of “Transformative WASH” provides opportunities for multisectoral research and implementation of programmes that could potentially lead to improvements in child health, growth and developmental outcomes. Overall, the studies that we have chosen emphasise the need for better alignment of nutrition and health system interventions to ensure that the most vulnerable mothers and children (due to poverty, adverse climate change, humanitarian crises, or disabilities/cognitive impairment) have equitable access to multilevel interventions that work synergistically to address childhood stunting.

Dietary and non-dietary determinants of linear growth status of infants and young children in Ethiopia: Hierarchical regression analysis.

IntroductionChildhood growth faltering remains a major public health problem in developing countries. We aimed to identify the distal, underlying, and proximal dietary and non-dietary factors associated with length-for-age (LFA) of infants and young children in Ethiopia.MethodsWe used a nationally representative sample of 2,932 children aged 6–23 months from the Ethiopian demographic and health survey (EDHS) conducted in 2016. Hierarchical regression analysis was done to identify the factors associated with LFA.FindingsPastoral residence (adjusted β (aβ) = -0.56, 95%CI = -0.82, -0.31, P<0.001) and poorest household wealth category (aβ = -0.57, 95%CI = -0.66, -0.48, P<0.001) were the basic factors negatively associated with LFA. Among underlying factors, maternal wasting (aβ = -0.43, 95%CI = -0.58, -0.28, P<0.001), and unimproved toilet facility (aβ = -0.48, 95%CI = -0.73, -0.23, P<0.001) were negatively associated with LFA. Proximal factors found positively associated with LFA were dietary diversity (aβ = 0.09, 95%CI = 0.043, 0.136, P<0.001), meal frequency (aβ = 0.04, 95%CI = 0.00, 0.08, P = 0.042), and vitamin A supplementation (aβ = 0.16, 95%CI = 0.03, 0.29, P = 0.020). Male sex (aβ = -0.26, 95%CI = -0.39, -0.14, P<0.001), age (aβ = -0.12, 95%CI = -0.13, -0.10, P = 0.001), small birth size (aβ = -0.45, 95%CI = -0.62, -0.29, P<0.001), and not currently breastfeeding (aβ = -0.29, 95%CI = -0.47, -0.11, P = 0.003) were negatively associated with LFA.ConclusionLFA was associated with various influences at distal, underlying, and proximal levels. A multi-pronged approach, addressing the various factors comprehensively, would represent an important consideration to promote linear growth in early childhood in Ethiopia.

Household sanitation and personal hygiene practices are associated with child stunting in rural India: a cross-sectional analysis of surveys

ObjectivesIncreasing evidence suggests that water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices affect linear growth in early childhood. We determined the association between household access to water, sanitation and personal hygiene practices...

Effect of obesity on linear growth

To describe our current understanding of the mechanisms involved in the regulation of linear growth in childhood obesity. The developmental origins hypothesis has focused on low birth weight individuals with subsequent obesity, identifying a cascade of neuroendocrine regulatory factors involved in the progressive increase in body fat and metabolic risk. Yet, tall stature is the common clinical outcome of childhood obesity. Recent data have expanded our understanding of environmental influences on developing systems. Here, we review the elements of neuroendocrine systems contributing to the integration of metabolic controls involved in growth regulation in the obese child with particular emphasis on growth hormone, ghrelin, insulin-like growth factors and insulin. Growth patterns of obesity during childhood are well described, documenting increased linear growth in early childhood associated with accelerated pubertal maturation resulting in normal adult height. Despite recent data suggesting that ghrelin and the growth hormone secretagogue receptor, as well as the insulin-like growth factors, their binding proteins and insulin have potential to be mediators of nutrient exposure and linear growth, it remains to be determined how these systems interrelate and determine growth. This is an area of ongoing investigation.

Children of low socioeconomic status show accelerated linear growth in early childhood; results from the Generation R Study.

ObjectivesPeople of low socioeconomic status are shorter than those of high socioeconomic status. The first two years of life being critical for height development, we hypothesized that a low socioeconomic status is associated with a slower linear growth in early childhood. We studied maternal educational level (high, mid-high, mid-low, and low) as a measure of socioeconomic status and its association with repeatedly measured height in children aged 0–2 years, and also examined to what extent known determinants of postnatal growth contribute to this association.MethodsThis study was based on data from 2972 mothers with a Dutch ethnicity, and their children participating in The Generation R Study, a population-based cohort study in Rotterdam, the Netherlands (participation rate 61%). All children were born between April 2002 and January 2006. Height was measured at 2 months (mid-90% range 1.0–3.9), 6 months (mid-90% range 5.6–11.4), 14 months (mid-90% range 13.7–17.9) and 25 months of age (mid-90% range 23.6–29.6).ResultsAt 2 months, children in the lowest educational subgroup were shorter than those in the highest (difference: −0.87 cm; 95% CI: −1.16, −0.58). Between 1 and 18 months, they grew faster than their counterparts. By 14 months, children in the lowest educational subgroup were taller than those in the highest (difference at 14 months: 0.40 cm; 95% CI: 0.08,0.72). Adjustment for other determinants of postnatal growth did not explain the taller height. On the contrary, the differences became even larger (difference at 14 months: 0.61 cm; 95% CI: 0.26,0.95; and at 25 months: 1.00 cm; 95% CI: 0.57,1.43)ConclusionsCompared with children of high socioeconomic status, those of low socioeconomic status show an accelerated linear growth until the18th month of life, leading to an overcompensation of their initial height deficit. The long-term consequences of these findings remain unclear and require further study.

Cow milk consumption, insulin‐like growth factor‐I, and human biology: A life history approach

To assess the life history consequences of cow milk consumption at different stages in early life (prenatal to adolescence), especially with regard to linear growth and age at menarche and the role of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) in mediating a relationship among milk, growth and development, and long-term biological outcomes. United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 1999 to 2004 and review of existing literature. The literature tends to support milk's role in enhancing growth early in life (prior to age 5 years), but there is less support for this relationship during middle childhood. Milk has been associated with early menarche and with acceleration of linear growth in adolescence. NHANES data show a positive relationship between milk intake and linear growth in early childhood and adolescence, but not middle childhood, a period of relatively slow growth. IGF-I is a candidate bioactive molecule linking milk consumption to more rapid growth and development, although the mechanism by which it may exert such effects is unknown. Routine milk consumption is an evolutionarily novel dietary behavior that has the potential to alter human life history parameters, especially vis-à-vis linear growth, which in turn may have negative long-term biological consequences.

1040 THE EFFECT OF MOTHERS' DRUG ADDICTION ON THEIR OFFSPRING

From Jan.1975 to June, 1977, 113 infants of drug-addicted mothers (IDAM) were studied and compared to 5903 infants of non-addicts at Downstate Medical Center. There were no differences in the ethnic background,maternal age and parental education between the study and control groups. Of 113 pregnant addicts, 69 were taking multiple drugs. The incidences of maternal urinary tract infection,positive STS and fetal distress were significantly (p<0.005) higher compared with the control group. Mean birth weight and gestational age in the study group were 2807 g and 38.5 wk respectively. The high incidence of low birth weight (27%) was mainly due to prematurity (21%). Mean birth weight (2435 g) of 8 infants of pure heroin addicts was significantly (p<0.05) lower than that (2790 g) of 27 infants of pure methadone addicts. Neonatal mortality rate per 1000 live births in IDAM was 33 and in the control group was 15. Withdrawal symptoms were noted in 96% of IDAM. Of 113 IDAM in the study group, 43 infants were followed for 9-30 months. Neurological evaluation at follow-up in these 43 infants was within normal limits. Weight increment and head growth were normal. Of these 43 infants 26% had lengths below the 3rd percentile. Seven of them had normal growth rates while 4 had retarded growth rates. Our study indicates that mothers'drug addiction appeares to affect their offspring during the neonatal period and linear growth in early childhood.