Line Oriented Flight Training Research Articles

Hate to interrupt you, but… analyzing turn-arounds from a cockpit perspective

This study aimed to analyze aircraft ground operation processes from a human factors perspective with special emphases on the occurrence and influence of interruptions on pilots’ workload. Interruptions have been shown to increase workload and error probability as well as to contribute to fatal accidents in various fields. Countermeasures have been initiated especially in high-risk environments such as those involving medical issues. In aviation, more explicitly during turn-around processes, interruptions might occur frequently and impair flight safety. One hundred and sixty fully certified pilots working for a European airline were observed during their turn-around while performing real operations. Pilots’ interruptions were documented and classified in order to predict subjectively perceived workload by use of multiple linear regression analysis. External factors such as weather conditions, technical problems, and time pressure were considered as covariates. On average, a pilot experienced about eight interruptions during a turn-around. Overall workload estimates showed a level comparable to that of manual flying in a simulator. Interruptions from colleagues or from outside the cockpit were found to predict pilots’ workload; however, further external factors such as poor weather conditions impacted workload even more strongly. We suggest two approaches based on our results to handling the high rate of interruptions. We first recommend procedural changes to diminish the interruption rate; second, we recommend comprehensive, line-oriented flight training for airline and ground staff to raise awareness about the negative influence of interruptions.

Situated design of line-oriented flight training (LOFT): a case study in a Brazilian airline

This paper describes an exploratory situated approach for the design, development, standardization, and implementation of line-oriented flight training (LOFT) in a major airline. LOFT was conceived in aviation industry to be a practical application of crew resource management (CRM) concepts. The situated approach combines a set of methods and techniques from ergonomics and human factors disciplines. These methods were supported by social construction enabling the involvement and participation of different actors of the operational, tactical, and strategic level of the company. Under this framework, situated design is progressively established by socially constructed patterns up to a situated design comprising the construction of scenarios, training tools, procedures, structures, organization, flight documents, operations, and further training management contents. Our findings indicate that LOFT situated design, framed by social construction, can be applied to any aviation system with a specific culture and organization, which may be different from the ones that were implicitly or explicitly taken into account during the development of general LOFT guidelines.

From Healy's Training Principles to Training Specifications: The Case of the Comprehensive LOFT.

Alice Healy has dedicated much of her work to questions of skill acquisition, retention, and transfer. In the process, she has come to identify numerous training principles that have been shown to promote the acquisition, retention, and transfer of knowledge and skills in laboratory studies. The goal of this article is to translate some of the training principles offered by Healy and her colleagues (Healy, Schneider, & Bourne, 2012) into real-world, practical training specifications for the particular context of pilot training at the airline level. The training approach described here suggests structuring all of airline pilot training as line-oriented flight training (LOFT), where the notion of "line" refers to the air-line drawn on a map between a departure airport and a destination airport.

Manual flying skills under the influence of performance shaping factors

This paper describes an experimental study investigating pilots' manual flying skills. In today's line oriented flight training, basic flying skills are neglected frequently. So, the study examines the manual flying skills of commercial airline pilots under the influence of several performance shaping factors like training, practice or fatigue in a landing scenario. The landing phase shows a disproportionate high percentage of aircraft accidents and it is typically flown by hand. The study is to be undertaken with randomly selected pilots in a full motion flight simulator to ensure a high validity of the results.

FASA: Development and Validation of a Novel Measure to Assess the Effectiveness of Commercial Airline Pilot Situation Awareness Training

The present study took a novel approach to the assessment of a commercial airline pilot Situation Awareness (SA) training programme. The Factors Affecting Situation Awareness (FASA) questionnaire was developed to provide a more diagnostic measure of aircrews' acquisition and maintenance of SA. Thirty-two aircrew participants took part in this study; half received standard Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) and half received bespoke SA training. The results of the study provide strong evidence for the reliability of FASA to detect improvements to aircrew SA afforded by the training programme. The implications of these findings to SA measurement are discussed.

Development of Novel Measures to Assess the Effectiveness of Commercial Airline Pilot Situation Awareness Training

The present study took a novel approach to the assessment of a commercial airline pilot Situation Awareness (SA) training programme developed under the European Commission Framework V ESSAI project. Two measures of SA were developed specifically for the present study; the Situation Awareness Knowledge Test (SAKT) and the Situation Awareness and Workload In-flight Measure (SAWIM). Thirty-two aircrew participants took part in this study; half received standard Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) and half received the bespoke ESSAI SA training. The results of the study provide evidence for the validity of these tools to detect improvements to aircrew SA afforded by the novel training programme.

Using the Job Characteristics Model to Measure the Motivating Potential of Flightdeck Positions

This paper explores the potential of using the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) for analyzing flightdeck positions. The JCM has been successfully used to study a variety of job designs and the effects prescribed treatments have on the job designs. This paper presents an overview of the job characteristics model, discusses the model’s critical psychological states and shows how the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) can be used to measure the motivating potential of flightdeck positions. The results from our analysis and the model itself will be useful in the design of individualized LOFT (Line Oriented Flight Training) and CRM (Crew Resource Management) LOFT programs. Additionally, the JCM can be used to study the effects of automation, operation type (passenger vs. cargo), tenure as a pilot, and tenure in type on pilot motivation. From a longitudinal perspective, current data collection can serve as baseline measures for studying the aggregate, long-term effects of flightdeck job design changes.

Facilitating LOFT Debriefings: Instructor Techniques and Crew Participation

This study analyzes techniques instructor pilots (IPs) use to facilitate crew analysis and evaluation of line-oriented flight training performance. We analyzed IP facilitation and crew participation for 36 debriefing sessions conducted at 5 U.S. airlines. For this analysis we developed a rating instrument termed the Debriefing Assessment Battery and demonstrated that it can be used reliably. IP facilitation skill varied dramatically, suggesting a need for concrete hands-on training in facilitation techniques. All measures of crew participation correlated significantly with IP effectiveness in facilitation. Crews responded to IP guidance but did not lead their own debriefings. We suggest ways to improve debriefing effectiveness.

Facilitating LOS Debriefings: A Training Manual

This manual is a practical guide to help airline instructors effectively facilitate debriefings of Line Oriented Simulations (LOS). It is based on a recently completed study of Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) debriefings at several U.S. airlines. This manual presents specific facilitation tools instructors can use to achieve debriefing objectives. The approach of the manual is to be flexible so it can be tailored to the individual needs of each airline. Part One clarifies the purpose and objectives of facilitation in the LOS setting. Part Two provides recommendations for clarifying roles and expectations and presents a model for organizing discussion. Part Tree suggests techniques for eliciting active crew participation and in-depth analysis and evaluation. Finally, in Part Four, these techniques are organized according to the facilitation model. Examples of how to effectively use the techniques are provided throughout, including strategies to try when the debriefing objectives are not being fully achieved.

Developing Effective Flight Crew Decision Makers

The need for including decision making training objectives in the development of flight crew training programs is evident given the dynamic and complex environment in which the pilots perform. The experience of one airline in developing training for their flight crews has demonstrated that these types of objectives can be effectively integrated into their line oriented flight training (LOFT) program. The primary goal of LOFT is to create a realistic environment in which the pilots perform as if they are in line operations. Performance in this environment sets the stage for an effective training debriefing. An essential part of creating this environment is allowing for realistic decisions to be made that are followed by the appropriate outcomes and consequences. Pilots have consistently rated these training events as effective and helpful. Besides these student critiques, the effectiveness of the training is also evaluated using check pilot observations of crew performance in line operations.

An Evaluation of Cockpit Resource Management Training in Qantas

This study reports an evaluation of a Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) training program at Qantas Airlines in Australia. Four sets of survey data were gathered: Two from crew involved in CRM and a specific Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) scenario conducted in a simulator; and two from instructors, one from the LOFT instructors, the other from the CRM instructors. The crew results showed that CRM was perceived to have improved teamwork and leadership and that LOFT was viewed favorably. The instructor results showed generally successful implementation of the decision-making strategies but indicated that certain groups were not sufficiently assertive in communicating their preferred options. The instructors were generally positive in their evaluation of the CRM program. Implications are discussed.

Instructor Strategies in the Assessment of Aircrews: Heuristics in CRM Assessment and Their Operational Implications

Established Crew Resource Management (CRM) research has concentrated on the analysis of actual crew behaviors and crew training. As CRM research and training matures, assessment issues take on increasing importance. Current research emphasis has broadened and shifted focus from crew training methodologies in recognition of the importance of the assessment process. The identification of the strategies that experienced instructors employ in efficient CRM assessment is essential to a better understanding of the assessment process. These learned strategies help experienced instructors focus on key crew behaviors in complex Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT). This present research was designed to identify these strategies employed by experienced instructors as part of a larger effort to develop a prototype CRM assessment expert system. Protocol analysis techniques were used to develop a set of assessment rules for the prototype expert system. The experienced instructor protocols were translated into a set of pseudo-code rules. The lower-level rules, derived from the experienced instructor protocols, were analyzed and abstracted into a set of general strategies. These are the strategies that the experienced instructor has learned to use to help focus on the key crew behaviors in the complex Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) scenario environment where the instructor cannot observe all behaviors. These strategies have a number of implications for training new instructor/assessors, the standardization and calibration of LOFT assessors, and for achieving more systematic CRM assessments.

Cognitive Modeling of Crm Assessment Expertise: Identification of the Primary Assessors

A cognitive model of instructor Crew Resource Management (CRM) assessment was developed as an integral component of a prototype CRM assessment expert system. The cognitive model provides an instructor-centered approach to CRM assessment in the multi-tasking, time-constrained environment of recurrent Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT). This cognitive modeling is based on systematic analysis of how experienced instructors are able to attend to key crew behaviors and derive consistent CRM assessments in the complex simulator-based training environment. Concept sorting data, collected from recurrent training instructors, was subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis. The analysis identified the mental organization or knowledge structures required to make efficient CRM assessments in the time-constrained LOFT environment. There were three primary assessment clusters that experienced instructors had in common. These clusters of assessment concepts were used to develop the architecture and content of the assessor modules for the prototype CRM assessment expert system. That expert system provides an efficient CRM assessment that is similar to the process and output of the experienced recurrent training instructor. These findings have operational implications for the feasibility of an instructor CRM assessment tool and for making the CRM assessment process more systematic.

Increasing Hits and Reducing Misses in CRM/LOS Scenarios: Guidelines for Simulator Scenario Development

Simulator scenarios have been used to elicit aircrew members' skills for research, training, and evaluation. These scenarios are associated with line-operational simulations, line-oriented flight training, line-operational evaluation, and special-purpose operational training. Design guidelines for these scenarios have been published in Federal Aviation Administration (1990) Advisory Circular 120-35B and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Guidelines for the Development of Line-Oriented Flight Training (Lauber & Foushee, 1981). Although these two publications include the essential information for scenario development, there is additional guidance needed by individuals who are inexperienced in scenario design to help ensure that their scenarios will have value for their intended purpose. Based on experience in developing scenarios for research and training, with a primary focus on crew resource management (CRM) behaviors, U.S. Navy researchers have now augmented existing guidelines for scen...

A Turning Point in Aviation Training: The AQP Mandates Crew Resource Management and Line Operational Simulations

Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) have not been mandatory elements of air carrier flight crew training. Additionally, Full-Flight Simulation and Flight Training Devices (FTDs) have been tools utilized to various degrees by the different air carrier training departments. Each air carrier's training program has traditionally been approved by its Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Principal Operations Inspector (POI). The Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) is an alternative method of training air carrier flight crewmembers and will be a voluntary program applicable to airline certificate holders under the Code of Federal Regulations Section 14 (14 CFR--encompasses aeronautics and space) Parts 121 and 135. The FAA has facilitated the implementation of AQPs with the issuance of a Special Federal Aviation Regulation (SFAR 58), rather than rewriting the numerous Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) which detail air carrier training. Additionally, an Air Carrier Training Branch (AFS-210) has been established to administer AQPs, with quality control being developed by a human factors specialist. Mandatory CRM training and the utilization of Line Operational Simulations (LOS--a rechristening of LOFT) are key elements of the AQP curriculum for flight crewmembers. As AQPs are approved, increased utilization of FTDs may augment and optimize Full-Flight Simulation. "... it is anticipated that AQP will become standard practice in the future for FAR Parts 121 and 135 operators" (Longridge and Boothe, 1991).

Pilot’s Evaluation of the Usefulness of Full Mission IFR Simulator Flights for General Aviation Pilot Training

Professional pilots, including flight instructors, who had participated in multiple session line-oriented flight training (LOFT) Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) simulator flights differing in task difficulty evaluated the value of such flights for the training of general aviation pilots. These flights, which employed a relatively low cost simulator (Frasca 141), were judged to be quite useful for instrument student flight training, for instrument rated pilots with moderate instrument experience, and for experienced pilots. The aspects of flight that were seen as receiving the greatest benefit from the flight scenarios were practicing responses to problem situations, attitude instrument flying, practicing instrument approaches under varying weather conditions, and navigation and communications for student pilots. In contrast, the simulator was not seen as useful for Visual Flight Rules (VFR) recurrent training.

Line-oriented flight training (LOFT)

Line-oriented flight training (LOFT)