Line Extension Research Articles

Bundling and Line Extensions in Distribution Channels

We show how manufacturers can benefit from contracts that incentivize retailers to purchase multiple products from the same manufacturer. We isolate two effects: first, under standard contractual inefficiencies, which give rise to double marginalization, such contracts can increase channel profits (the “improved contractual efficiency” effect); second, when a weaker product is tied to a particularly strong “must-stock” product, such contracts can also reduce a retailer’s position and shift rent to the manufacturer (the “increased rent extraction” effect). To harness these effects, we show that it can even be profitable for the manufacturer to introduce a weak product that ultimately has the effect of foreclosing a rival’s more efficient substitute. Nevertheless, unless the tying product is sufficiently strong, the overall effect on welfare can still be positive, providing manufacturers with an efficiency rationale to use against common concerns held by antitrust agencies about such practices. This paper was accepted by Dmitri Kuksov, marketing.

Differentiated influences of anomalous subtropical high on extreme persistent precipitation and heatwave events in the Yangtze River Valley

AbstractIn the summers of 2020 and 2022, the Western Pacific Subtropical High (WPSH) intensified extremely and extended westward. However, in summer 2020, the Yangtze River Valley (YRV) witnessed record‐breaking floods, while in 2022, an unprecedented and prolonged heatwave occurred. Distinctly, these two extreme events were caused by different effects of the WPSH: one is enhancement of the transportation of water vapor and the other is adiabatic heating caused by the descending airflow. In June–July 2020, the stable extension of the WPSH ridge line to South China directed a southwesterly airflow along its northwest flank, leading to sustained precipitation in the YRV. Additionally, the midlatitude circulation pattern featured two troughs and two ridges. Such a circulation configuration, combined with the strong and westward WPSH, enabled the continuous southward intrusion of cold air and northward transport of warm moist air, converging over the YRV, and thus influenced extreme persistent precipitation. In contrast, the WPSH covered the YRV almost entirely during summer 2022. Under this influence, the clear‐sky condition and descending airflow through adiabatic warming directly resulted in the heatwave. In addition, local land–atmosphere feedback was crucial in its development and persistence. The soil moisture deficit induced by high temperatures increased the sensible heat flux between the soil and atmosphere upward, further enhanced the surface air temperature and strengthened the heat dry condition.

Retailer Information Sharing With Upstream Product Line Flexibility

With the rise of the digital economy, many firms are enhancing product line flexibility (i.e., the ability to adjust product line length or depth) to better manage demand uncertainties brought about by disruptive technologies. Concurrently, the booming digital economy has widened the information gap in supply chains. Retailers/platforms can now gather more detailed data to predict demand, but such data remains unavailable to manufacturers. This article studies how a manufacturer’s product line flexibility influences a retailer’s incentive to voluntarily share private demand information. We show that upstream product line flexibility encourages a retailer to voluntarily share information when product substitutability is low and the product line extension fee is moderate. This insight challenges the conventional belief that retailers should keep demand information private to maintain an advantage over manufacturers. Our work is the first to suggest that upstream product line flexibility can significantly motivate retailer information sharing. Additionally, we show that, although a social planner might prefer to withhold demand information from the manufacturer in the absence of product line flexibility, sharing this information becomes preferable when the manufacturer can adjust the product line length. The retailer’s decision on information sharing can align with the social planner’s in such scenarios. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, given upstream product line flexibility, except when product substitutability is not sufficiently high and the product line extension fee is moderate, the retailer’s information sharing decision is unaffected by whether the manufacturer determines the product line design before or after demand is realized and shared accordingly.

EXPRESS: Is This for Me? Differential Responses to Skin Tone Inclusivity Initiatives by Underrepresented Consumers and Represented Consumers

To better represent consumers who have traditionally been underrepresented in the marketplace, an increasing number of brands are extending or launching product lines that are more inclusive of a diverse consumer base. This work focuses on consumers’ feelings of representation (the feeling they, and consumers they identify with, are seen, heard, or taken into consideration when product decisions across product categories are being made) and explores how consumers who feel underrepresented (vs. represented) in skin tone products respond to more inclusive skin tone line extensions. Across seven studies using laboratory, field, and secondary data, the authors show that those who feel underrepresented have less favorable responses relative to those who feel represented. The authors find evidence that this is driven by product fit skepticism – doubt that the products in the inclusive line will meet one’s skin tone needs. The authors also identify managerial interventions that improve responses among underrepresented consumers by demonstrating respect for consumer needs, thus reducing the differential response between underrepresented and represented consumers.

Are there generalizable patterns in line extension performance?

PurposeNew product introductions, particularly line extensions (LEs), are common in consumer goods categories. Despite their commonality, the success of LEs are not guaranteed. The purpose of this study is to provide brands that introduce LEs a benchmark about what success to expect.Design/methodology/approachThis study investigates the success of 36,994 LEs in each quarter for the first three years after introduction. Four indicators are calculated using consumer panel data to benchmark how long LEs survive (failure rate), how competitive they are in the category (market share) and how they are adopted by category buyers (penetration and repeat buyer rate).FindingsMost LEs survive after the first year, but many cease to exist or perform well in the long term. Around 50% of LEs fail a year after launch, but this failure rate halves once seasonal LEs are removed. Failure rates start to approach 80% after three years. Most LEs do not perform better than existing products. Around three in four LEs have a market share or penetration near or below the category norm. Although this percentage decreases the longer after launch, most LEs are still below the category norm.Practical implicationsThese new product success benchmarks provide guidelines to practitioners about what success the “typical” LE will achieve. This research can help guide new product investment decisions because it provides context on what is feasible to achieve.Originality/valueFour market success measures are used, a departure from past benchmarking research which uses practitioner evaluation on metrics seldom used in practice. The authors provide guidelines about when and how to measure LE and new product success more broadly.

The 2024 release of the ExoMol database: Molecular line lists for exoplanet and other hot atmospheres

The ExoMol database (www.exomol.com) provides molecular data for spectroscopic studies of hot atmospheres. These data are widely used to model atmospheres of exoplanets, cool stars and other astronomical objects, as well as a variety of terrestrial applications. The 2024 data release reports the current status of the database which contains recommended line lists for 91 molecules and 224 isotopologues giving a total of almost 1012 individual transitions. New features of the database include extensive “MARVELization” of line lists to allow them to be used for high resolutions studies, extension of several line lists to ultraviolet wavelengths, provision of photodissociation cross-sections and extended provision of broadening parameters. Some of the in-house data specifications have been rewritten in JSON and moved for conformity with other international standards. Data products, including specific heats, a database of lifetimes for plasma studies, and the ExoMolHR web app which allows exclusively high resolution data to be extracted, are discussed.

Method for calculating the bearing capacities of caisson foundations considering the effects of caisson construction

Theoretical analysis of the effects of caisson on the bearing capacities of large caisson foundations was performed, with the slip line simplified as a polyline. Based on the limit balance of forces in active zone, transition zone and passive zone, a simplified bearing capacity algorithm for caisson shaft wall or partition wall with no buried depth and no excavation is established. The effects of caisson excavation on the caisson foundation bearing capacity were examined, and a theoretical formula for estimating the caisson shaft wall or partition wall bearing capacity considering the effects of the angle and depth of excavation was derived. At the same time, the influence of soil weight and the extension of soil slip line from the bottom of the foundation to the surface on the bearing capacity of the foundation is analyzed when there is a certain buried depth between the shaft wall and the partition wall, and a formula for calculating the bearing capacities of buried caisson foundations was proposed. According to the calculation method of caisson shaft wall or partition wall proposed in this paper under the condition of no buried depth and no excavation, combined with the world’s largest north anchor caisson project of Wufengshan Yangtze River Bridge, the plate loading test and inversion analysis are carried out. The results of the test and the simplified calculation method of foundation bearing capacity are in good agreement, and the error of the inversion value and the theoretical calculation value are within 5%. For the theoretical calculation method of foundation bearing capacity considering foundation excavation and buried depth, experiments, inversion analysis or numerical simulation will be carried out to verify the accuracy of the calculation method.

Cover Picture: Geomechanics and Tunnelling 3/2024

AbstractIn Stockholm, Implenia builds of one of the world's deepest metro stations. This new metro station is an extension of the Blue Line to Södermalm. Beside the station single‐track tunnels for the subway, lift shafts, and a collateral service tunnel are constructed. Due to the difficult geological conditions and the bad quality rock, the AT – Pipe Umbrella System with squeeze connections were used to reinforce excavations and bolster safety during construction (photo: DSI Underground).

Consumer Preferences and Reactions to Brand Expansion

Abstract Consumer purchasing power is one of the key determinants of consumer behavior, among other factors. Acceptance of new brands or product line extensions of existing brands is influenced by perceived value. New products can be added to existing product lines by introducing new products within them, or brands can expand horizontally by entering entirely new categories or product lines. Any vertical expansion, whether to a higher or lower level, comes after a price shift and a product quality achievement relative to its base product. While survey-based research provides valuable insights that support the growth of the Premium brand, building a strong relationship with customers, quickly identifying preferences, personalizing the offer and fostering a climate of trust remain its main sources of value. The purpose of the paper is to show the positive relationship that exists between the vertical growth of the brand and the increase in customer loyalty, as shown by the research conducted on a deliberate sample.

Trends in amorphous solid dispersion drug products approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration between 2012 and 2023

Forty-eight (48) drug products (DPs) containing amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in the 12-year period between 2012 and 2023. These DPs comprise 36 unique amorphous drugs. Ten (10) therapeutic categories are represented, with most DPs containing antiviral and antineoplastic agents. The most common ASD polymers are copovidone (49%) and hypromellose acetate succinate (30%), while spray drying (54%) and hot melt extrusion (35%) are the most utilized manufacturing processes to prepare the ASD drug product intermediate (DPI). Tablet dosage forms are the most common, with several capsule products available. Line extensions of several DPs based on flexible oral solids and powders for oral suspension have been approved which provide patient-centric dosing to pediatric and other patient populations. The trends in the use of common excipients and film coating types are discussed. Eighteen (18) DPs are fixed-dose combinations, and some contain a mixture of amorphous and crystalline drugs. The DPs have dose/unit of amorphous drug ranging from <5 mg up to 300 mg, with the majority being ≤100 mg/unit. This review details several aspects of DPI and DP formulation and manufacturing of ASDs, as well as trends related to therapeutic category, dose, and patient-centricity.

Most total pancreatectomies for ductal adenocarcinoma potentially can Be replaced by whipple over the splenic artery: a before and after study.

Recently, more and more total pancreatectomy (TP) has been performed for central-located pancreatic ductal cell adenocarcinoma (PDCA) which abuts or involves both gastroduodenal and splenic arteries and demands transaction of both of them for a complete resection. Spiked by Warshaw's procedure (spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy with excision of splenic vessels), we developed a new procedure "Whipple over the splenic artery (WOTSA)" to replace TP by leftward extension of pancreatic parenchyma transaction line and preservation of pancreatic tail and spleen after excision of splenic artery. This uncontrolled before and after study assesses the safety and efficacy of a new technique "Whipple over the splenic artery (WOTSA)" as a treatment for PDAC which traditionally requires total pancreatectomy (TP) for a complete excision. The study group comprised 40 consecutive patients who underwent WOTSA for PDAC between August 2019 and September 2022. Their clinicopathological characteristics and survival were compared with those of a historical control group comprising 30 consecutive patients who underwent TP between January 2016 and July 2019. None of the 40 patients in the WOTSA group required reoperation due to infarction of the pancreas and/or spleen remnant. DM medication after WOTSA were none in 19, oral hypoglycemic agents in 19, and insulin preparations in 2 patients. Compared with TP, patients who underwent WOTSA exhibited similar rates of major operative complications, clear pancreatic parenchyma transaction margin, and number of harvested positive lymph nodes, but higher rate of adjuvant chemotherapy completion and a trend toward better median disease free survival (14 vs. 7.5mo, P=0.023). Compared to TP, WOTSA can be safely performed and have much better postoperative glycemic status without cost of higher operative risk or impaired surgical radicality. These findings indicate that most TPs for PDAC potentially can be replaced by WOTSAs.

EPB-TBM cutterhead torque and thrust modelling in rock tunnels through an analytical method and TSFS model

The analysis of cutterhead torque and thrust force is of utmost importance in the selection of a proper tunnel boring machine (TBM) and in achieving optimal operation of the earth pressure balance (EPB) machine for a specific project. This study focuses on the analysis of cutterhead torque and thrust force using data collected from the recent metro project of Tehran, specifically the southern extension of Tehran metro line 6, (TML6-SE). To assess the impact of geotechnical and operational parameters on the measured torque and thrust, a database consisting of 457 data points was established. The excavation of a significant portion of the project took place in a dense and robust limestone using a refurbished EPB machine with a diameter of 9.19 m, initially designed for soft ground excavation. To complete this section of the tunnel, the cutterhead was equipped with disc cutters instead of rippers. Consequently, existing theoretical models for estimating torque and thrust of an EPB machine were modified to accommodate the hard rock boring process. Additionally, the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy system (TSFS) was utilized in this study. The results of the models yielded quantitative conclusions, and the comparison between the measured and predicted target parameters demonstrated high accuracy. This study contributes to the understanding of the influence of various parameters on the performance of EPB machines in hard rock boring conditions, as well as providing insight into the potential adjustments needed in theoretical models for predicting cutterhead torque and thrust force. The proposed models showed satisfactory and reliable accuracy, with all models having an R2 value above 0.7 and loss function values nearing zero.

On the Primary and Secondary Demand Effect of Horizontal Line Extensions

On the Primary and Secondary Demand Effect of Horizontal Line Extensions

Framing brand concept of vertical line extensions: The moderating role of believability

AbstractThis article examines the influence of framing a brand's concept as functional versus symbolic in the advertising of a new vertical line extension. In this research, we carried out two online experiments and collected data from 415 participants recruited from MTurk to investigate the moderating role of believability on the effect of brand concept framing on consumers' purchase intentions of vertical line extensions. The results indicate that (i) consumers evaluate a vertical extension advertising message more positively when it is framed in a consistent manner with the targeted price/quality segment and not with its parent brand or existing product line and that (ii) this effect is moderated by consumer believability such that an advertising framing effect is found for high, but not low, in believability. Perceptions of category fit mediate the relationship between framing brand concept and the evaluation of the extension. This study contributes to the advertising and marketing literature by exploring how consumers can interpret brand concept framing in advertising messages of vertical line extensions differently depending on their level of believability and, in turn, influence their purchase intentions.

Effects of musical expertise on line section and line extension.

This study investigated whether music training led to better length estimation and/or rightward bias by comparing the performance of musicians (pianists) and non-musicians on performance of line sections and line extensions. One hundred and sixteen participants, among them 62 musicians and 54 non-musicians, participated in the present study, completed line section and line extension task under three conditions: 1/2, 1/3 and 2/3. The mixed repeated measures ANOVA analysis revealed a significant group × condition interaction, that the musicians were more accurate than non-musicians in all the line section tasks and showed no obvious pseudoneglect, while their overall performance on the line extension tasks was comparable to the non-musicians, and only performed more accurately in the 1/2 line extension condition. These findings indicated that there was a dissociation between the effects of music training on line section and line extension. This dissociation does not support the view that music training has a general beneficial effect on line estimation, and provides insight into a potentially important limit on the effects of music training on spatial cognition.

Orally Disintegrating Tablets: A Short Review

Mouth dissolving tablets are well established dosage forms available in the market. The numerous advantages that they offer to the patients in terms of compliance as well as to the manufacturers in terms of huge revenues by line extension of products are well known. In spite of such popularity, there seems to be lack of a standardized system to characterize these dosage forms. Enormous work has been done in this field, wherein some of the researchers have developed their own methods of evaluation. This article attempts to present a detailed review regarding technological advances made so far in the area of evaluation of mouth dissolving tablets with respect to special characteristics of these unique dosage forms. In the absence of any available standardized method, the author’s recommendation on critical issues in the field may be considered.

History Dependence in Drug Demand: Identification and Implications for Entry Incentives

Abstract I use temporal discontinuities in choice sets to identify history dependence in drug demand, finding large and long-term effects. Quasi-randomly assigning a patient to a drug today increases the probability she is taking the same drug four years later by 54 percentage points. History dependence is stronger in patients taking multiple medications and weaker in drugs that are significantly more effective than substitutes. It is also weaker in generics and line extensions, driven by switching from the reference branded drug. I use a pair-specific switching-cost model to capture these patterns and provide suggestive evidence that they affect manufacturers’ entry timing incentives.

Green innovation and product line decisions under environmental standard upgrading

With the continuous improvement of product environmental standards, using or selling older generation products will increase additional environmental costs, resulting in a decrease in consumer preference for older generation products or products on hand. This paper investigates the impact of specific product environmental standards implementation on enterprise product line extension and pricing strategies. We find that if the production cost is low or the consumers’ green sensitivity is high enough, the manufacturer’s green production can be better than the designated standard. When the unit production cost of new products is within a certain range, the manufacturer’s profit will increase, otherwise it will decrease. In addition, we present the manufacturer’s product line update strategy in different market segments defined by different cost thresholds, which indicate the cases where the manufacturer will be forced to withdraw from the market. Moreover, we examine the correlation between consumer quality preference and market demand, and discover that an elevation in consumer preference for product functional quality does not necessarily result in a corresponding increase in product demand. Finally, we investigate the relationship between the manufacturer’s actual green product decision and the specified environmental standard, and give the decision areas where the manufacturer’s actual green decision is higher (or lower) than or equal to the specified green standard. The results suggest that blindly improving environmental standards by policymakers does not necessarily lead to an improvement in manufacturers’ green decisions.

Relationships and statistics between various vibration metrics, derived from a large set of measured train pass-bys

The impacts of groundborne vibration (GBV) and sound (GBS) induced by railway infrastructure are assessed across the world through different metrics. Many national and international standards can be found for assessing GBV, based either on acceleration (UK, Spain, etc.) or velocity metrics (Germany, USA, etc.). Various frequency and/or time-weightings can be used, and different quantities (running RMS or highest levels) are also considered. Direct comparison between the various assessment criteria and measured metrics is, therefore, difficult. Although no international standard defines GBS criteria, many guidelines suggest such a criterion through a relationship between GBS levels and vibration velocity levels on room surfaces. Different quantities are often used, even for neighboring projects: London’s Crossrail (now Elizabeth Line) and Northern Line extension impact assessments both used maximum vibration velocity levels but with different time weighting (slow and fast, respectively). Arup has amassed a large dataset of vibration measurements through its involvement in many railway schemes over the years. For each of the thousands of train pass-bys, measured at different distances, infrastructure types, operation, and ground conditions, the most common European and North American GBS and GBV metrics are derived and compared to each other to develop statistical relationships and associated uncertainties.

Skeptics, progressives, and adoptees: The constituencies of public transit and their perceptions of place along the Los Angeles Purple Line

ABSTRACT Whether pursuing high-speed rail, light-rail transportation, or bus, transit agencies must invest in transit infrastructure that significantly alters the built environment. Resident responses to new transit vary. Some will be more hesitant out of concerns that it will drastically change their neighborhood and worsen their quality of life. Others may worry about its displacement impacts. However, one’s sense of place and perception of their neighborhood can also shape their response to new public transit. Using Los Angeles’s Purple Line extension project as a case study, this study draws from semi-structured interviews with residents to understand how their perception of and experience with their neighborhood shapes their responses to new transit infrastructure. The authors find that there are three different constituencies: (1) progressive non-users, (2) preservationist transit skeptics, and (3) transit users and adoptees. Each group has distinct perceptions of their neighborhood—as a quaint, residential suburb, a historic community, or a business and cultural district—that directly informs their response to transit infrastructure and transit-oriented development.