Lindi Region Research Articles

An Investigation of the Determinants of Child Sexual Abuse in Tanzania: A Case of the Kilwa District-Lindi Region

Child sexual abuse (CSA), which includes assault and rape, encompasses all sexual activities involving a child. Internationally, there has been a recent surge in reports of CSA and other forms of violence against children. This substantiates the global significance and gravity of the matter, given its magnitude and impact on children. The current study on assessing CSA determinants in Tanzania for the Kilwa–Lindi region is presented as a case study, intending to uncover the socioeconomic determinants of CSA. The primary data were collected from 32 parents/guardians, who were systematically selected from 384 individuals who had reported CSA to social welfare offices. The presented findings were based on the observed meanings and realities that family members and the community ascribed to CSA through the lens of social construction theory. The qualitative data were analysed using Atlas.ti, and the quantitative data was analysed using Microsoft Excel. The following factors influenced CSA in the study area of Kilwa district: the socioeconomic status of women; the belief of community members in witchcraft as a method of purging misfortune and acquiring wealth; the use of remedies for HIV and other incurable diseases; the excessive workload and passivity of parents or guardians; the apathy of community members; the prevalence of myths and sexual taboos among parents or guardians; the ignorance of parents or guardians regarding indicators of CSA; and the scarcity of parental competence. Having the presented findings, it is therefore timely for the government to consider investing in prevention measures such as the early warning signs of CSA among children and parents and the reporting points, among others. The study recommends a comprehensive study on the awareness of CSA warning signs among children and parents in Tanzania

Implementing Instructional Supervisory Responsibilities in Tanzanian Public Secondary Schools: To What Extent Do Head of Schools Perform their Duty

The provision of quality education, among other things, depends on the role played by school heads in handling administrative duties such as the supervision of teachers, who are the key players in curriculum implementation. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which heads of schools discharge their instructional supervisory roles to enhance teachers’ performance in the daily teaching and learning processes. The study was carried out in the Lindi region, Tanzania Mainland in 2021. This study applied mixed methods where both qualitative and quantitative approaches were applied. The study sample comprised of teachers (N=103), heads of schools (N=57) and class masters (N=11) from 57 randomly selected public secondary schools. Data was collected through questionnaires, focus group discussions and interviews. Data were analysed using both quantitative and qualitative approaches where quantitatively researcher employed descriptive and inferential statistics and presented results with frequencies and percentages. Qualitatively a researcher employed a thematic analysis method for identifying and reporting patterns/themes in the data. The study findings revealed that heads of schools failed to discharge their instructional supervisory responsibilities, as teachers were not punctual in attending to schools. There was no regular checking of teachers’ professional records except once in the year or by school inspectors. Heads of schools did not supervise teachers on how effectively they could handle students’ assessments. Noted was also a lack of instructional resources in schools. For improvement of the provision of quality education it is recommended that heads of schools effectively discharge their duties and where their setbacks, like lack of accommodation around the school, few teachers and lack of instructional resources, they should contact relevant bodies from both government and non-government sectors work together in making friendly teaching environment. Moreover, heads of schools encourage teachers’ creativity in using improvised local resources whenever and wherever possible.

Distribution, characterization and chemical management of noxious shrub weed (Dichapetalum stuhlmannii Engl) in cashew in southeastern Tanzania

Weeds are among the limiting factors that influence low production of economically important crops including cashew (Anacardium occidental L.). Shrub weeds attribute to inter-competition for resources, hinder harvesting and ultimately reduce cashew yields in Tanzania. The current study determined the distribution, characteristics and chemical control option of Dichapetalum Engl in Lindi and Mtwara regions, Southeastern Tanzania. The distribution study involved a survey for weed presence along the areas of Lindi and Mtwara regions. The characterization included distilling, and assessing the growth and development properties of shrub weed. Chemical herbicides; glyphosate 480g. ai/l, 2, 4 D - Dichlorirophenoxyacetic 720g. ai/l, triclopyr 160g a.i./l and 1:1 mixture of glyphosate 480g a.i./l plus triclopyr 160g a.i./L at 15, 20 and 25 mls of formulated product/L of water per 4 m2 were tested on tender, mature and blooming growth stages of D. Stuhlmannii and three spraying frequencies. Findings revealed that the D.stuhlmannii, is a widely distributed shrub weed in Lindi and Mtwara regions. The weed was characterized with three main growth stages of seedling, mature and blooming with a long tap root and evergreen throughout the wet and dry seasons. The tested herbicides revealed the potential suppression of D. Stuhlmannii growth. Glyphosate and a mixture of glyphosate + triclopyr at 15 ml/L outperformed triclopyr and 2, 4 D across all the growth stages. Double spraying of glyphosate and its mixture bettered frequencies of triclopyr and 2, 4 D. The delayed regrowth of suppressed shrub weed took 90–120 days after application of herbicides. The current study recommends for single or double applications of glyphosate herbicides at 15 ml/L or 10,700 ml/ha on tender or mature D. Stuhlmannii in cashew farms. Further studies on the economic feasibility and effect on the microbiota of applied fungicides are required.

Investigating the Management of COVID-19 Pandemic Risks in Primary Schools: A Case of Public Primary Schools in Lindi Region, Southern Tanzania

The spread of COVID-19 in the year 2020 put various nations at risk, especially in social, economic, and educational aspects. School closure was employed as one of the response measures against the spread of this virus. However, the measure imposed high social and educational risks with consequences of a massive drop academically. This study investigated the management of the COVID-19 pandemic risks in primary schools in the Lindi region in Tanzania intending to suggest the essence of having a risk management plan for indeterminate outbreaks and other uncertainties to avoid the recurrence of the risks. The study adopted a qualitative case study design which allowed an in-depth data collection through one-on-one interviews and observation methods. Thematic analysis was adopted to analyze the data for this inquiry. Findings revealed that the targeted schools were able to manage the COVID-19 pandemic risks even though the management was done locally due to the lack of risk management plans in the schools. Furthermore, it was discovered that there was no budget set to deal with the emerging risks. Headteachers from the investigated schools went as far as using part of their salaries to tackle the emerging risks as a result of school closure. Additionally, findings also revealed that during school closure teachers were unprepared on how to conduct the teaching and learning processes amongst the pupils through distance mode. Despite several endeavors to try to ensure pupils continue to learn in their homes, the strategies were not successful due to inadequate Information and Communication Technology (ICT) knowledge and skills among the teachers, parents, and pupils as well as insufficient supportive distance learning infrastructures such as ICT equipment and the internet. Consequently, proper implementation of distance teaching and learning during school closure was impaired due to the lack of risk management plans in schools. It is recommended that the risk management plan be developed to ensure that teaching and learning processes are never hampered by emergencies.

Adoption of processing technologies and innovative food preservation techniques: findings from smallholders in the Lindi Region in Tanzania

Adopting processing technologies and innovative food preservation is crucial for improving the food security and nutritional status of rural populations in Tanzania and other countries in the Global South. However, low adoption rates among smallholders highlight the need for a better understanding of farmers’ decision-making processes. The aim of this study is to examine extrinsic and intrinsic factors influencing smallholders’ decision-making processes in the adoption of innovative food processing and preservation techniques (specifically, pigeon pea flour-based products, threshers, dehullers) in Mitumbati and Mibure in the Lindi Region in Tanzania. Primary data on 555 farm households were collected using a standardized survey. Extrinsic influential factors were analyzed using binary logistic regression analysis. The results on internal decision-making are based on an analysis of barriers and motivations identified by farmers in relation to the uptake of the different innovations. Training and awareness emerged as the most significant factors positively associated with the adoption of all innovative processing and preservation techniques. Moreover, the results show that the primary drivers for smallholders in the study region to adopt innovative technologies were the potential health benefits and time savings they offered. The main challenge they faced was a lack of knowledge about the innovations. The results indicate that disseminating knowledge is crucial for the successful adoption of innovative processing technology in the study region. Improving and expanding training programs to be more inclusive can help to create incentives and overcome barriers, leading to increased adoption.

Carotenoids, tocopherols, minerals and phytate in fresh and carotenoids and tocopherol contents in sun-dried dark green leafy vegetable varieties from the Lindi region, Tanzania

Carotenoids, tocopherols, minerals and phytate in fresh and carotenoids and tocopherol contents in sun-dried dark green leafy vegetable varieties from the Lindi region, Tanzania

Prevalence and factors associated with ongoing transmission of Schistosoma haematobium after 12 rounds of Praziquantel Mass Drug Administration among school age children in Southern Tanzania

BackgroundWorld Health Organization (WHO) recommends periodic praziquantel Mass Drug Administration (MDA) to vulnerable populations, especially school-aged children, to reduce the risk of transmission. In the S. haematobium endemic Lindi region, on the southeastern coast of Tanzania, praziquantel has been distributed for more than a decade (12 rounds) in schools. However, there is a paucity of data on the current burden and factors perpetuating ongoing urogenital schistosomiasis among SAC. The study investigated the prevalence and factors associated with the ongoing transmission of S. haematobium among school-age children (SAC) after 12 rounds of praziquantel in Nachingwea, Southern Tanzania. Material and methodsA quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted between May and June 2022 among 483 SAC in the Nachingwea district. Macrohematuria, microhaematuria, and S. haematobium eggs were assessed in the collected urine sample for each participant, using macroscopic observation, urine dipstick, and urine filtration techniques, respectively. Infection intensity was quantified for positive S. haematobium urine samples. Knowledge and attitudes towards schistosomiasis were assessed among participants through an interview-administered questionnaire, and water contact practices were registered through an observation checklist. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics, the Chi-square test, and logistic regression. ResultsThe prevalence of S. haematobium infection was 10.6%, with 0.6% (3/51) prevalence of heavy infection. The factors associated with S. haematobium persistence transmission were a habit of visiting the water bodies (AOR = 1.62, 95% CI: 0.40–1.96), swimming in the visited water bodies (AOR = 4.58, 95% CI: 1.72–12.19), using water from the river source (AOR = 3.79, 95% CI: 1.51–9.51) and attending Mkumba Primary School (17.4%; AOR = 6.12, 95% CI: 1.64–22.85). ConclusionsFindings suggest ongoing transmission of urogenital schistosomiasis in the Nachingwea District despite 12 rounds of praziquantel treatment, with a low prevalence of heavy infection (0.6%). Praziquantel distribution should be complemented with health education, especially on the cause and transmission of urogenital schistosomiasis to increase knowledge that will improve a good attitude towards schistosomiasis prevention. An adequate water supply is to be considered to reduce infections due to the visit to water sources for daily use.

Factors Influencing Participation of Adults in Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision in Lindi Region, Tanzania.

Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision (VMMC) is a surgical procedure done by a qualified medical personnel using anesthesia. In Tanzania, there is a gap between adult men who are not circumcised and adolescents. This calls for a review of the current situation of VMMC services in the community at large in order to inform policymakers and stakeholders involved in the fight against HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. The present study explored the factors influencing utilisation of VMMC services among adult males in Lindi Region, Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was conducted among adults male (15-49 years). Data were collected by using a structured modified measure evaluation quantitative Version 2 questionnaire using a Tablet/Android device with an Open Data Kit (ODK) application (Google Inc. California, USA). The socio-demographic set up of the study participants was mainly composed of males less than 30yrs, single, unemployed, with primary education as the highest level of study and of a Muslim faith. Majority of the respondents (92%) recommended circumcision to a male family member who is not yet circumcised. The study showed that improved sexual performance (81%), penile hygiene (97%) and circumcision as a modern civilization (96%) to be the key factors that motivated respondents' utilisation of VMMC services. However, only 20.6% of the respondents could barely say that VMMC is a surgical procedure done by qualified medical personnel under anaesthesia. The major reasons for recommending the utilisation of VMMC services to their family members were the VMMC usefulness in preventing STIs (48.9%), cultural practices and norms (31.5%), improved penile hygiene (17.4%) and religious reasons (2.2%). VMMC is positively favoured by the local coastal communities of the Lindi region of Tanzania Mainland. Our findings may be inferred to reflect on the other neighbouring regions with similar sociocultural set ups such as Mtwara, Pwani, Rural Dar es Salaam and Tanga and the isles of Unguja and Pemba. Programs addressing VMMC may be well instituted in these local communities with high degree of favourability and success.

The Contribution of Village Land Forest Reserves in Livelihood Improvement: The Case of Songea and Liwale Districts in Tanzania

Village land forest reserves (VLFRs) are recognized as an important base for rural community development. This study used timber and honey production activities to assess the actual contribution of three Village land forest reserves of Lupagalo VLFR from Songea District in Ruvuma Region, and Liboya and Luhangino VLFRs from Liwale District in Lindi Region on livelihood improvement rural communities living adjacent to these forests. This study assessed livelihood improvement based on financial, human, physical, and social assets. Data were collected using household structured interviews and focused group discussions. A total of 71 timber dealers (38 in Songea and 33 in Liwale District) and 37 honey dealers (23 in Songea and 14 in Liwale District) were interviewed in this study. Inferential statistics and Descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage were used to report the results of this study. Results show that there is gain in livelihood assets due to timber and honey production. In addition, findings reveal that, physical capital indicators including better education, better health care, and food security had significant influence on livelihood of timber and honey dealer as the p-value (p<0.05). In financial capital, savings had a significant influence on the livelihood of honey and timber dealers. Also, training as an indicator of human capital had a significant contribution on the livelihood of honey and timber dealers. Further, based on social capital, membership status had a significant influence on livelihood contribution p<0.05. Since this study considered only two products, other forest products such as firewood, charcoal, and medicinal plants should be assessed.

Leadership, Teaching and Learning in Times of Crisis in Southern Tanzania

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on education provision worldwide. School leaders, teachers and parents found themselves in uncharted circumstances, which hugely impacted their roles in promoting children’s learning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the roles played by leaders, teachers, and parents during the COVID-19 crisis. This paper discusses teaching and learning in this time of crisis. The study sampled 10 head teachers, 60 schoolteachers and 57 parents representing 10 primary schools in five districts in the Lindi region of Tanzania. A postmodernism lens was applied to respond to questions about the strengths and weaknesses of support structures, such as parents, teachers, and local and central government, in the era of COVID-19. Data indicate that teachers, parents, and even the government, had to try various approaches to shift between different roles involved in addressing learning demands in the era of COVID-19 in Tanzania. Generally, the study identifies complex tensions between the support structures, that had been brought on by the pandemic. It is through understanding the complex tensions and balancing various roles that we can begin to understand the teaching and learning landscape in times of crisis.

Recent leptospirosis outbreak: an urgent warning around the globe, genomic features, diagnosis, and treatment procedures-correspondence.

Recent leptospirosis outbreak: an urgent warning around the globe, genomic features, diagnosis, and treatment procedures-correspondence.

Coastal communities’ livelihoods conditioned by resource use dynamics and changing environments in Lindi Region, South-Eastern Tanzania

Coastal and marine resources are significant drivers of coastal livelihoods, population growth along the coast, and boosting farm and off-farm job generation. However, the use of coastal resources has been extremely variable, resulting in ups and downs in the productivity of coastal communities. This cross-sectional study investigated the root causes of these coastal resource dynamics and how they affect household livelihood. The household questionnaire survey was used as the main instrument, aided by focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observations in data collection. Data were collected from 100 randomly selected households, four focus groups (one for each ward), and eight key informant interviews. Household shocks (both climate and non-climate), livelihood diversification, government policy changes, and aging all influence household decisions on which livelihood alternative to pursuing. Coastal and marine resource extraction, on the other hand, increases or decreases in magnitude as households strive to sustain income levels, driven by prices set by demand and supply in the phases of environmental change. Changes in fiscal gains cause the linear relationship between yield and natural resource utilization. Nonetheless, the low productivity of coastal and marine ecosystems and terrestrial ecosystems, as a result of environmental change, has prompted the deployment of modern resource extraction methods to adapt to the changing environment. Nonetheless, despite the paradox, the natural gas discovery gives coastal towns a new hope for survival. Apart from investments, policies must address the lack of access to current technologies, the compensation range, and support for community livelihoods.

An optimisation tool for minimising fuel consumption, costs and emissions from Diesel-PV-Battery hybrid microgrids

Diesel generators (diesel gensets) are widely used within microgrid (MG) and off-grid systems for rural electrification, particularly in developing countries. The sizing and selection techniques during the MG planning stage are a key for maximising cost-effectiveness and minimising environmental impacts. This becomes more important for hybrid mini-grid systems when photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation and other renewable energies are included in the system as special attention is needed to limit the genset’s output power, to keep it within the recommended operating range. This paper presents a cost optimisation model, centred on the generatoŕs performance, within diesel/PV/battery MGs, for minimising the MG’s operating costs and environmental impact. The model considers fuel consumption equations adapted for castor oil-diesel (COD) blends and two major pollutant emissions (NOx and PM2.5), which are not considered in other optimisation models. The optimisation was implemented for high, medium, and low electricity demand scenarios, with eight possible system configurations, for the Lindi Region of Tanzania as it belongs to one of the five countries with the lowest electricity access in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). An economic assessment was done to compare the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of the system configurations. The impact of the fuel price and pollutant emission costs on the fuel selection was investigated using sensitivity analysis. The results confirmed that for specific electricity demand each scenario requires a unique set of diesel generators and the selection is affected by the PV share and the battery energy storage (BES) units included. The best LCOE for the high, medium, and low electricity demand scenarios were 0.43£/kWh, 0.42£/kWh, and 0.45£/kWh, respectively. The sensitivity analysis revealed that the pollutant emission costs have a significant impact on LCOE for the different fuel choices whereas the variation of fuel prices has a minimal effect unless the diesel price increased by 100%.

Fish seed and feed value chains analysis and their critical factors for aquaculture development in Tanzania

AbstractSeeds and feeds are among the most important inputs required for sustainable aquaculture industry development in any country worldwide. However, the value chain analysis of seeds and feeds in most developing countries including Tanzania has not been mapped, and the key actors are not identified and characterized. To address this knowledge gap, we mapped the fish seed and feed value chains in Morogoro, Dar es Salaam, Coast and Lindi regions in Tanzania, evaluated their performances, analyzed their contributions to aquaculture growth and finally assessed the critical factors impending aquaculture development before proposing appropriate strategies for upgrading. We found that the fish seed value chain comprised broodstock suppliers, seed producers, seed marketers, traders and fish farmers. Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) and African sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus) seeds produced were primarily sold to farmers at an advanced fry stage (1 to 5 g) at a price ranging from USD 0.09 to 0.13 and USD 0.22 to 0.27, respectively. The feed value chain consisted of suppliers, producers, importers, traders and fish farmers. The feeds produced were powdered, compressed and extruded pellets and granules sold at an average price of USD 2.50/kg. The seed and feed value chains in the four regions drive the aquaculture development and employ 137 and 109 people, respectively. The fish farming was mainly affected by insufficient seeds and feeds; inadequate extension services, inadequate technical skills in seed and feed production; limited farming equipment; insufficient capital and limited access to market. We propose increasing seed and feed production through collaborative research between researchers and the private sector, enhancing delivery of extension services to all fish farmers, providing fiscal incentives to hatchery and feed investors, organizing hatchery owners into associations, and undertaking marketing awareness campaign for aquaculture growth in the country for food, income and employment generation.

Enhancing Language of Instructions by Using the Language Supportive Teaching and Textbooks Materials in Secondary Schools in Temeke District

Various arguments and solutions are proposed in the current discourse on weak English language proficiency in Tanzania. Most authors agree that the standard of reading, writing, speaking of the language is low. Proposed solutions vary. One solution proposed has been to support student language proficiency in form 1 by running a language supportive program. Language Supportive Teaching and Textbooks [LSTT] is one among the recent programs designed and practiced in some schools in Dodoma, Morogoro and Lindi regions of Tanzania. The program with materials available for further experimentation since 2016. This study investigated the enhancement of the proficiency in the language of instructions by using tried LSTT materials to improve English language proficiency among Form 1 students in Temeke district in Dar es Salaam. The study employed action research design; using a quantitative approach to administer a vocabulary and comprehension pre and post –tests, and qualitative research approach aimed at understanding the views of teachers and students through interviews and observation of learning in classrooms. The study was guided by Constructivism Theory (Vygotsky, 1978) focusing on learning by seeing and scaffolding by following teachers and peers, and Bilingual theory of Common Underlying Proficiency model (Cummins, 1980’s). Two public secondary schools were involved in the study, which included a sample size of 160 participants among whom 154 were students, four English teachers and two Head teachers. The researcher selected students from two streams in two schools hence one stream termed as a “treated group” and other group used to compare the results of pre- and post-test. Purposive sampling used to select four teachers. After running eight lessons, the findings revealed that through LSTT materials both teachers and students benefited as classroom interaction improved. Teachers were able to present the lesson well through LSTT approaches and pedagogy, which promoted students participation through exercises and better understanding, as well as improved speaking and reading. Those who were oriented through LSTT material had a higher score in the posttest, which was significant. After the researcher had been teaching through the LSTT materials most of the students in the trial gained confidence and more interest to learn through English language. Their scores in vocabulary and comprehensive test also improved significantly.

Smallholder farmer's awareness and determination of aflatoxins in sesame seeds of southern district of Tanzania

Consumption of aflatoxins contaminated foods has led to detrimental health effects worldwide, with even more severe cases in African countries including Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess awareness and aflatoxins contamination of sesame seeds in Lindi and Mtwara regions. Subsequently, a total of 70 sesame seed samples were randomly purchased from local markets for aflatoxin determination using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Qualitative data were analyzed using SPSS 20 for descriptive and correlation analysis. Results show that 82.4% of the respondents were not aware of aflatoxin contamination of agricultural produce. Awareness was negatively correlated to the levels of education (p=-0.309) and positively correlated with gender whereby men were more aware than women (p=0.03). On the other hand, 37 out of 70 sesame seed samples were contaminated with total aflatoxins at a range of 0.009 ng/g to 5.557 ng/g. Although none of these samples exceeded the Tanzania maximum limits of 10 ng/g for total aflatoxins, 2 samples exceeded the maximum limit of 4 ng/g set by the European Union. Furthermore, Aflatoxin B1 was detected in 13 samples moreover the concentration was below the Tanzania and EU maximum limits of 5 ng/g and 2 ng/g respectively. Though the contamination was below the national maximum limits and limited to one agro-ecological zone and season, these findings provide useful insights on aflatoxins contamination of sesame seeds from the two main growing regions in Tanzania.

Perceptions on Early and Expected Effects of Natural Gas Investments on the Coastal Communities of Mtwara and Lindi Regions in Tanzania

This paper examines the early and expected effects of a natural gas investment in the regions of Mtwara and Lindi in Tanzania. Using information from the survey and focus groups, the paper examines the perceptions of the communities and finds mixed social and economic effects. In general, the initial investment in Songosongo pipeline shows some positive outcomes as compared the new investment in the Mtwara-Dar es Salaam pipeline. More of the positive effects are on social services such as the provision of water and health services. Some of the positive outcomes on casual employment were reported in the initial stages of investments in Mtwara. Whereas quantitative data shows that the effects are generally positive, qualitative results show some communities have grievances due to the fact that their earlier expectectation have not been met. In Songosongo, the results show some pecuniary benefits, yet communities reported some environmental pollution, with flourishing seaweeds and dying fish and social problems, such as prostitution due to population increase. In Mtwara, the communities still have high expectations. These preliminary findings call for a follow-up study since the effects are likely to change with time, which justifies the need for a large-scale study in these regions.

Perceptions on Early and Expected Effects of Natural Gas Investments on the Coastal Communities of Mtwara and Lindi Regions in Tanzania

Perceptions on Early and Expected Effects of Natural Gas Investments on the Coastal Communities of Mtwara and Lindi Regions in Tanzania

Evaluation of diagnostic x-ray equipment performance in lindi and mtwara regions - Tanzania

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the quality control (QC) tests results of general radiography x-ray equipment in order to assess the performance of the x-ray equipment in comparison to the acceptance limits, hence advise on measures to provide quality diagnostic imaging at optimized dose. QC tests results from health facilities in Mtwara and Lindi regions were evaluated. The QC results from 2015 to 2021 were analyzed for selected QC parameters which included kV accuracy, kV reproducibility, mAs linearity, beam quality, collimation and beam alignment. All x-ray units passed the kV accuracy, kV reproducibility, and beam quality and beam alignment tests. It was noticed that the collimation test surfaced among the failed parameters, though the performance of all the tested parameters were within 76.9 %. to 100% of the acceptable limits. Furthermore, lack of QC and maintenance plan was noted. Generally, the performance of most of the x-ray units were in compliance with regulatory requirements. However, improvement is desirable especially in the areas of QC plan, preventive maintenance and repair. Managers of the facilities need to take heed that optimum equipment performance is vital if quality imaging at optimized radiation dose is to be realized.

Challenges Encountered by School Heads in Carrying out Instructional Supervisory Activities in Public Secondary Schools in Lindi Region-Tanzania

The purpose of this study was to determine the challenges heads of schools encounter while carrying out their instructional supervisory activities in schools. The study conducted in Lindi region, Tanzania Mainland. Creswell (2014) elaborates, “mixed-methods research involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data, integrating the two forms of data using a distinct design with philosophical assumptions as well as the theoretical framework”. The study used descriptive design in which qualitative and quantitative approaches were involved. The study sample comprised of teachers (N=114), heads of schools (N=57) from 57 randomly selected secondary schools. Data collected through questionnaires, focus group discussion and interview. The study findings revealed several challenges encountered by heads of schools while carrying out their instructional supervisory activities in public secondary schools in Lindi Region. The challenges identified by this study included; multiple responsibilities, lack of qualification, negative attitude of teachers toward supervision, inadequate training among heads of schools and large number of teachers as well as poor communication skills. Heads of schools have to be relieved with multiple responsibilities by school boards. The study recommends leadership training to heads of schools, establishment of good communication system through which teachers will not consider supervision negatively. Moreover, provision of awareness seminars to teachers on the importance of supervision. As for further research, the study recommends the comparative study involving a number of heads of schools to determine the role of an individual head of school in effective supervision at school.