Lightning Surge Research Articles

Degradation of crystalline silicon solar cells caused by lightning induced impulse surge

Abstract Crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells are connected in series to form photovoltaic modules, which are installed in wide-open areas. They are exposed to lightning electromagnetic (EM) interference at high risk. The lightning EM field can induce an impulse surge in the loop of the solar-cell string, and c-Si solar cells are prone to damage. To study the effect of lightning surge on monocrystalline silicon cells and polycrystalline silicon cells, impulse voltage tests are conducted. Semiconductor structures of c-Si solar cells after testing are observed using scanning electron microscopy. The results indicate that the lightning surge will generate some cracks and defects in the P–N junction. Under a strong electric field, the N-type emitter layer and the grain boundary can be destroyed, which contributes to the degradation of the c-Si solar cell. Compared to monocrystalline silicon cells, polycrystalline silicon cells can withstand greater forward lightning surge; however, their maximum reverse lightning surge is relatively low.

Grounding resistance model considering propagation time between grounding electrodes

The velocity of electric field in the soil is sufficiently lower than that in the air. Conventional grounding resistance models based on an electric circuit theory ignore the propagation time between grounding electrodes (GEs). If the GEs are connected using an aerial lead conductor, the propagation time along the lead conductor is apparently different from that along a grounding conductor (GC) in the soil. The propagation time of mutual grounding resistance between GEs should be considered in accurate lightning surge analysis. This paper proposes a simulation model of the mutual grounding resistance considering the propagation time between GEs.

Insulation Coordination System 150kV Substation and Transmission Line against Lightning Surge Interference in a Nickel Smelting Plant

Insulation Coordination System 150kV Substation and Transmission Line against Lightning Surge Interference in a Nickel Smelting Plant

Voltage and Current Characteristics of Schottky Barrier Diodes and Rectifier Diodes Exposed to Standard Lightning Impulse Voltage

Lightning surges are one of the major reasons of bypass diode (BPD) failure in photovoltaic modules. In this study, standard lightning impulse voltages (SLIVs) were directly applied to Schottky barrier diodes (SKB diodes) and rectifier diodes (PNJ diodes) with different electrical specifications. The critical voltages Vc of SLIV at which the diodes were damaged and the temporal variations of diode current (iD) and voltage (vD) were measured. It was found the iD‐vD characteristics can be categorized into a total of eight patterns: four patterns for the forward SLIV application and the four for the reverse SLIV application, regardless of diode types. The measured results imply that the irreversible voltage dip that occurs before the termination of the reverse breakdown contributes significantly to diode damage in the both forward and reverse SLIV applications. SKB diodes exposed to the reverse SLIV are easily damaged at the lowest magnitude of SLIV among all combinations of diode types and SLIV directions. Once a diode has been damaged due to the first SLIV application, the second application of SLIV to the same diode causes remarkable change in the iD‐vD characteristic even if the magnitude of the second SLIV is smaller than Vc. © 2024 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Effective Protection Distance of SPD in PV System Under Lightning Surge

Effective Protection Distance of SPD in PV System Under Lightning Surge

Incorporating the LEMP Impact on Lightning Surge Analysis of Transmission Lines in EMT Simulators

Incorporating the LEMP Impact on Lightning Surge Analysis of Transmission Lines in EMT Simulators

Direct Lightning Surge Analysis of Distribution Lines Considering LEMPs From Lightning Channel and Struck Pole in EMT Simulation

Direct Lightning Surge Analysis of Distribution Lines Considering LEMPs From Lightning Channel and Struck Pole in EMT Simulation

Lightning surge analysis for hybrid wind turbine-photovoltaic-battery energy storage system

Lightning surge analysis for hybrid wind turbine-photovoltaic-battery energy storage system

Breakdown Characteristics of Schottky Barrier Diodes Used as Bypass Diodes in Photovoltaic Modules under Lightning Surges

Damage to photovoltaic power-generation systems by lightning causes the failure of bypass diodes (BPDs) in solar cell modules. Bypass diodes damaged by lightning experience high-resistance open- or short-circuit failures. When a bypass diode experiences short-circuit failure due to indirect lightning, the damage may not be immediately visible. When solar radiation is subsequently received, the current circulating in the closed circuit formed by the cell string and short-circuited bypass diode flows, resulting in overheating and burnout of the short-circuited bypass diode. The authors’ research group previously reported that when a bypass diode fails within a range of approximately 10−1 Ω to 10 Ω, the heat generated by the failed bypass diode is high, posing the risk of burnout. However, the detailed failure characteristics of the bypass diode that fail because of indirect lightning surges are not clear. In this study, we performed indirect lightning fracture tests and clarified the dielectric breakdown characteristics of Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs) contained in the bypass diodes of photovoltaic solar cell modules, which are subjected to indirect lightning surges. Furthermore, we attempted to determine the conditions of indirect lightning that resulted in a higher risk of heat and ignition. As a result, short-circuit failures occurred in all the Schottky barrier diodes that were destroyed in the forward or reverse direction because of the indirect lightning surges. Moreover, the fault resistance decreased as the indirect lightning surge charge increased. These results indicate that the risks of heat generation and burnout increase when the Schottky barrier diode fails with a relatively low electric charge from an indirect lightning surge. In addition, we observed that for a forward breakdown of the Schottky barrier diode, the range of the indirect lightning surge that results in a fault condition with a higher risk of heat generation and burnout is wider than that for a reverse breakdown.

Influence of a shield wire flashover on the indirect lightning performance assessment of distribution lines

This paper presents a new aspect of shield wire (SW) modeling for assessing the indirect lightning performance of overhead medium-voltage distribution lines: a flashover (FO) between an SW and the reinforcing bars of a distribution pole or a crossarm (SWFO). In general, an SW is periodically grounded approximately every four to ten poles and not grounded at the other poles. However, owing to lightning-induced overvoltages, the voltage difference between the SW and the distribution pole may even exceed 100 kV, and the SWFO can occur. In this paper, we evaluate the effect of the SWFO on the number of FO occurrences of phase-conductor insulators by the Monte Carlo method using a 2D finite-difference time-domain-based indirect lightning surge analysis program. The effect of the SWFO is more significant in lines with high soil resistivity (a soil resistivity of 1000 Ωm was assumed) regardless of the installation of surge arresters: the total number of FO occurrences markedly differs by up to 50% between cases in which the SWFO is considered and not considered. The analysis presented in this paper will assist the formulation of lightning protection measures particularly, in regions with high-resistivity soils.

Lightning Surge Overvoltage Protection for Low-Voltage Equipment Placed Outdoors in TT System

When a TT system is used for earthing a low-voltage distribution line, the conductive enclosure of the equipment is grounded separately from the system ground for the power line. In such a case, lightning protection depends on the installation of surge protective devices (SPD) on the equipment side. However, in newer systems, a protective earth (PE) line is wired from the power substation for stable operation and connected to the PE line in the outdoor equipment. In this case, the SPD of the distribution board can suppress the overvoltage on the equipment side. In this article, the overvoltage generated between the power and grounded PE lines of the equipment using a vinyl-insulated vinyl-sheathed flat-type cable for a low-voltage distribution line was examined using transient circuit analysis. Then, we demonstrated countermeasures to achieve electric shock and lightning overvoltage protection.

Case Study of Malfunctions of Outdoor Security Cameras Caused by Lightning Surge

Case Study of Malfunctions of Outdoor Security Cameras Caused by Lightning Surge

Lightning transient response of bifurcation structure pylon and its empirical expression with high accuracy

This paper studies the transient responses to a lightning surge terminating on towers with a bifurcation structure and presents new empirical formulas for estimating the respective lightning performance. The multi-stage segmentation is adopted for down-lead modeling, and mutual coupling and parasitic capacitance are considered. By discussing the influence degree of these factors, we propose a simplified down-lead system for formula expression. These formulas are derived from the lattice diagram method, and the original lattice diagram method recommended by CIGRE is also compared. Taking the simulation results as standard, the results derived from the proposed method show a good match with the simulation values, due to the consideration of the down-lead bifurcation configuration. The critical current (Ic) at the full range of front time is obtained, and the errors for the Y-shaped pylon by the new method are much less than that of the CIGRE method when the lightning front time is in the 97.5 % confidence interval. Finally, the Monte Carlo method is employed to verify the superiority of the new empirical formulas.© 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Magnetic Design Aspects of Coupled-Inductor Topologies for Transient Suppression

Based on the discovery of the surge absorption capability of supercapacitors, a transient protector named supercapacitor-assisted surge absorber (SCASA) was designed and implemented in a commercial device. Despite its simplicity, the circuit topology consisted of a coupled inductor wound around a specially selected magnetic core. This paper elucidates the design aspects of SCASA coupled-inductor topologies with a special focus on the magnetic action of core windings during transient propagation. The non-ideal operation of the SCASA transformer was studied based on a semi-empirical approach with predictions made by using magnetizing and leakage permeances. The toroidal flux distribution through the transformer was also determined for a 6 kV/3 kA combinational surge, and these findings were validated by using a lightning surge simulator. In predicting the possible effects of magnetic saturation, the hysteresis properties of different powdered-iron and ferrite core types were considered to select the optimal design for surge absorption. The test results presented in this research revealed that X-Flux powdered-iron toroid and air-gapped EER ferrite yielded exceptional performance with ∼10% and ∼20% lower load–voltage clamping compared to that of the existing Kool μu design. These prototypes further demonstrated a remarkable surge endurance, withstanding over 250 consecutive transients. This paper also covers details of three-winding design optimizations of SCASA and LTSpice simulations under the IEC 61000/IEEE C62.45 standard transient conditions.

Experimental and Analytical Studies on Lightning Surge Response of the Quadruple-Circuit Transmission Line

The compact design of a 500 kV quadruple-circuit transmission line can effectively reduce the line corridor area, but the height of the tower also increases, increasing the probability of suffering a lightning strike. The 500 kV quadruple-circuit transmission lines carry more energy, and because of this, lightning strikes that cause power line trips are more likely to result in large-scale power outages. Therefore, it is necessary to make an accurate assessment of the lightning performance of 500 kV quadruple-circuit transmission lines. First, simulated lightning-striking experiments were carried out on a scaled 500 kV quadruple-circuit transmission line in the laboratory, where transient voltages and currents were measured. Second, a numerical model was established with the Finite-Difference Time Domain (FDTD) method, which was then verified with the experimental results. Third, lightning surge responses of a 500 kV quadruple-circuit transmission line under near-real facility conditions are estimated with the verified FDTD model. In the simulations, influencing factors, such as the rise time of injecting current, the velocity of return-stroke current and the terrains, were taken into consideration, but not in previous lightning surge analysis with the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP). Results show that insulator voltages on the same tower cross-arm are nearly identical, although the length of the cross-arm is large enough. Furthermore, it is found that the rise time and the lightning current velocity have great effects on the lightning surge response, and the terrains are less impactful but not negligible. Therefore, these factors should be considered carefully where higher accuracy lightning protection design is necessary.

Ellipsoidal Design of Robust Stabilization of Power Systems Exposed to a Cycle of Lightning Surges Modeled by Continuous-Time Markov Jumps

Power system stability is greatly affected by two types of stochastic or random disturbances: (1) topological and (2) parametric. The topological stochastic disturbances due to line faults caused by a series of lightning strikes (associated with circuit breaker, C.B., opening, and auto-reclosing) are modeled in this paper as continuous-time Markov jumps. Additionally, the stochastic parameter changes e.g., the line reactance, are influenced by the phase separation, which in turn depends on the stochastic wind speed. This is modeled as a stochastic disturbance. In this manuscript, the impact of the above stochastic disturbance on power system small-disturbance stability is studied based on stochastic differential equations (SDEs). The mean-square stabilization of such a system is conducted through a novel excitation control. The invariant ellipsoid and linear matrix inequality (LMI) optimization are used to construct the control system. The numerical simulations are presented on a multi-machine test system.

Comparison of Shielding Effectiveness of Different Shielding Methods for Multi-Core Cable on Lightning Surge Current

Appropriate shielding methods can reduce the lightning induced voltage and current of cables. In this article, different lightning surge currents (8/20 and 5/320 <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">μ</i> s) are coupled to the tested multi-core cable with single shielding layer and double shielding layers. The shielding effectiveness (SE) on the lightning surge current is compared for different cable shielding methods. The experimental results show that the cable induced current is effectively reduced when the shielding layer, the shielding spare core wire or the metal tube are grounded at two ends. A better shielding effect for the cable with double shielding layers is achieved by grounding both ends of the outer shielding layer and one end of the inner shielding layer, reducing the induced current to about 5% when the shielding layer is not grounded. Moreover, the SE of the spare core wire, used as the shielding wire in the multi-core cable, is better than that of the external shielding wire of the cable. The SE of the metal tube increases more and more slowly with the increase of the tube coverage percentage. Furthermore, the descending order of the SE of shielding methods involved here are grounding both ends of double shielding layers, grounding both ends of single shielding layer, spare core wire shielding and metal tube shielding. Finally, some engineering recommendations are proposed through the comparison between the shielding methods in this article and relevant works.

ANALISA TEGANGAN LEBIH AKIBAT SURJA PETIR DARI TRANSMISI YANG MASUK KE TRAFO DAYA I 20 MVA DI GARDU INDUK 150 KV BUMI SEMARANG BARU (BSB) DENGAN METODE DIAGRAM TANGGA

Lightning surges that come from transmission lines are very dangerous for equipment in substations, especially transformers. The transformer is a very important main component of the substation. As a result of damage to the transformer will result in the distribution of electrical energy to consumers can be disrupted. The solution to this problem is to install an arrester to overcome the lightning surge voltage in order to avoid damage to the transformer at the substation. To secure the transformer at the 150 kV Bukit Semarang Baru (BSB) substation from lightning surges, it can be analyzed using four conditions. The method used is the lattice diagram method. Based on the results of the tests carried out on the I 20 MVA power transformer, the results obtained that the transformer can be protected from lightning surges with only one arrester. If installed two arresters would be even better. However, if an arrester is not installed, this condition is very dangerous because it will cause the transformer to be damaged, because the voltage that appears on the transformer is 939.06 kV, exceeding the BIL value of the transformer, which is 650 kV.

An EMTP Extension for Computing Earthing System Transient Step and Touch Voltages

This paper presents a novel technique for computing dangerous voltages due to lightning transients imposed on earthing system, which is based on the use of the well-known ATP-EMTP software package. Earth surface transient potential distributions, as well as step and touch voltages computations, are performed through extending the widely used EMTP software package with a new post-processor (computer program), developed especially for that purpose. The earthing grid is approximated by the circular cross-section conductors. In numerical model, conductors are subdivided into segments (1D finite elements) and Clark's model with distributed constant parameters is then applied. Leakage conductance of conductor segments is modeled in EMTP as an additional lumped parameter. Analytical expressions for distributed and lumped segment parameters are derived using the average potential method. Due to the limitations of the EMTP, EM coupling between segments is neglected. The earth model is limited to the homogenous earth. Soil ionization effect is not accounted for, but could be incorporated, through some modifications of algorithms. Lightning surge model used is based on the Heidler's model of current source.

Nowcasting Severity of Thunderstorm Associated with Strong Wind Flow Over Indian Subcontinent: Resource Lightning Surges

Lightning Detection Systems (LDS) have a vital role in the real-time identification of the location of lightning strikes for the purpose of weather forecasting and issuing warning with sufficient lead time for safe operations. The spatial and temporal distribution of lightning, formulated using LDS observations, can be an objective input to infer and refine the climatology of Thunderstorm (TS) over a region. This study uses the data of Indian Air Force (IAF) LDS network to prepare climatological plots of lightning over India and to formulate location-specific TS guidance for a total of 12 Indian airports. The analysis of climatological plots reveals that there is a distinct warm-season preponderance of lightning strikes over Indian subcontinent, with pre-monsoon months receiving the maximum lightning. The most probable time of occurrence being 1200-1400 UTC during all the seasons across the country. Location-specific TS guidance not only signifies the most probable direction of occurrence of TS with respect to the airport, but also clearly brings out the favourable direction of movement. Hence, the same can be judiciously used as nowcasting aid coupled with actual LDS and Doppler Weather Radar (DWR) observations. Further, the characteristics features of lightning, like surges in flash rate, can be objectively used to define a predictor for nowcasting severe weather associated with a TS cloud. The study of these surges in lightning flash rate visa vis occurrence of Strong Surface Winds (SSW) &gt; 60 kmph over Delhi National Capital Region(NCR), indicated that there is an increase in the number of lightning flashes prior to the occurrence of SSW. 77.5 % occurrences are preceded by surges in flash rate within 45 minutes of the occurrence of SSW, however, the probability of detection of the event with a lead time of 15 to 45 minutes is around 71%.