Ball Lightning Research Articles

Progress in the creation of long-lived atmospheric luminous formations in a pulsed electric discharge with an electrolytic electrode

This work presents an analysis of the research conducted in many countries in recent years on the so-called Gatchina discharge. The findings indicate that the Gatchina discharge exhibits the majority of the characteristics of natural ball lightning, making it the most effective method for reproducing and studying this phenomenon. To a large extent, our new results are based on experiments performed for the first time to visualize dust particles arising in an erosive emission, as well as the formation of vortex flows. These experiments make it possible to explain the ability of the Gatchina discharge to maintain its shape for a long time in the afterglow.

Verification of validity of the electrodynamic model of ball lightning

The stability of ball lightning is analyzed. According to the electrodynamic model, the ball lightning consists of an energy core in the form of an ensemble of dynamic electric capacitors located inside a spherical shell of water. The dynamic capacitor consists of electrons and protons rotating in closed orbits. The shell tends to stretch under the force Fcf, which is, proportional to the kinetic energy of protons Ek, and the force Fel, proportional to the square of the uncompensated electric charge of the core Q2. The shell is compressed by the force Fsh proportional to its thickness a and the charge Q, as well as the atmospheric pressure force Pa. It is shown that, provided that the radius R of ball lightning can change only due to the work of internal forces, its size remains unchanged. The stability of the size of ball lightning is maintained under the balance of the rate of loss of its energy reserve Ek and the charge Q. If this balance is disturbed, an explosion of ball lightning or its collapse may occur. The relationship between the main parameters of ball lightning is considered: its energy Ek, charge Q, shell thickness a and shell radius R. The conditions for accumulation of maximum energy at a minimum shell thickness are found. The results of calculating the parameters of ball lightning with energy of 10-2300 MJ are compared with the parameters of observed high-energy ball lightning. It is shown that these data are in good agreement with each other.

Electrodynamic model of ball lightning

The paper considers a hypothesis of the structure of ball lightning core as an ensemble of dynamic electric capacitors. The dynamic capacitor is an object consisting of spatially separated charges – electrons and protons. Electrons, due to the action of mutually orthogonal electric and magnetic fields, move in a circle, oscillating in the radial direction. The magnetic field is generated by the movement of protons around the electron ring. The number of protons exceeds the number of electrons, due to which the dynamic capacitor has a positive electric charge. The system of dynamic capacitors is located inside a spherical shell consisting of water molecules polarized in the electric field of the charge of the dynamic capacitor. The shell creates a force that prevents the expansion of dynamic capacitors. It is shown that 1900 dynamic capacitors with a radius of 0.5 cm with a total kinetic energy of 6.36 MJ can fit in ball lightning with an internal shell radius of 6.2 cm. In this case, the energy density in the core of ball lightning can be about 6.4·109 J/m3. This is comparable with the result of measurements of energy density of natural ball lightning.

New observation and analysis of window damage as evidence for energy and power content of ball lightning

Ball lightning sometimes passes through closed glass windows, usually without damage but occasionally causing characteristic damage in the shape of a circular hole. We review some of these relatively rare cases, present a probable new case, and elucidate a process that accounts for the type of damage typically seen. The process requires volume rather than surface heating of the glass, and this requirement is not met by most current theories of ball lightning, except for one that involves new physics.

A New Approach to Nuclear Fusion Based on Muon Catalysis by Means of High-Energy Ball Lightning and an Accelerative Mechanism

A new method of realizing nuclear fusion reactions based on muon catalysis and the accelerative mechanism is proposed. High-energy ball lightning is periodically generated in a reactor chamber filled with deuterium gas and directed into a container containing liquid tritium. The entry of ball lightning into the tritium is accompanied by the generation of muons and mesomolecules due to a cascade process. Following the ball lightning, a high-energy plasma jet moves under the influence of traveling transverse electromagnetic waves. Deuterium ions and electrons of the jet, accelerated by intense transverse electromagnetic waves, interact with the tritium. Nuclear fusion reactions occur with the participation of muonic molecules at very low temperature. The developed method resolves all physical and technical problems that are inherent in existing traditional methods.

Visualization of a Toroidal Vortex Structure Forming in the Laboratory Ball Lightning of the Gatchina Discharge

Visualization of a Toroidal Vortex Structure Forming in the Laboratory Ball Lightning of the Gatchina Discharge

Ball lightning and unidentified flying objects (UFOs)

Descriptions of observations of large luminous objects (UFOs) are given. Particularly valuable is information about these objects obtained by pilots who saw them at close range. These objects are capable of flying at airplane speeds and emitting cone-shaped beams of light. Sometimes these rays break off before reaching the ground. When the beam hits a hard surface, it crumbles into “sparkles”. If there is close contact with a UFO, the aircraft's electronic equipment fails. Sometimes these objects “land” on the ground and take off, moving faster than the speed of sound. Objects remain invisible on the radar screen operating in the decimeter range. A hypothesis of the UFO device has been proposed. It is believed that UFO is an ensemble of ball lightning located in a common shell. The reason for the generation of cone beams of light is the synchrotron radiation of relativistic electrons that are part of the nuclei of ball lightning. Objects are capable of moving at supersonic speeds due to the emission of charged micro-clusters of water from their surface.

Ball lightning as a source of neutrino and muons at its entry into a dense medium

The phenomenon of ball lightning anomalous penetration through thick metalic absorbing filters and appearance of a dark ball lightning has been investigated. The ball lightning represents an extreme state of ionized matter in Nature. At the interaction of ball lightning with a dense medium a process of energy conversion of its own poloidal magnetic field into the kinetic energy of its charged particles occurs. The phenomenon of anomalous passage of a ball lightning within the standard model can be explained only by cascading generation of particles due to interaction of high-energy protons with an absorbing filter. The decay of pions leads either to the appearance of negative muons and muon antineutrino or positive muons and muon neutrino. This fact is confirmed by the absence of any particle imprints on the surface of this filter and the presence of a high potential of variable polarity in the region above the absorber after passing a ball lightning through it. This phenomenon of muons generation can be used to solve the problem of nuclear fusion.

Birthplace of ball lightning

Examples of ball lightning formation at high altitude near a linear lightning channel are considered. A photograph of ball lightning emerging from a linear lightning channel is shown. It is shown that the process of ball lightning formation lasts no more than 30 ms. A model of ball lightning formation due to the action of a magnetic field pulse of a linear lightning current on the ionized volume of space is described. A scheme has been proposed to explain a rare event - the gathering of ball lightning from sparks. Cases of the formation of ball lightning at a large distance from the site of a linear lightning strike, when energy was transferred through wires, are considered. It is noted that the process of formation of such ball lightning and their properties differ markedly from ball lightning appearing near the channel of linear lightning. This made it possible to distinguish these objects into a special type of ball lightning. A model of the process of formation of such ball lightning is described, according to which their core consists of ions flowing from the electrode of an air electrical capacitor (antenna, power line), and the shell material is dust particles. Cases of observation of objects with a size of 50 microns - 1 mm appearing during electrical discharges in water are considered. The analogy of these objects with miniature ball lightning is shown.

Life as the Explanation of the Measurement Problem

This study argues that a biological cell, a dissipative structure, is the smallest agent capable of processing quantum information through its triangulated, holographic sphere of perception, where this mechanism has been extended by natural evolution to endo and exosemiosis in multicellular organisms and further to the language of Homo sapiens. Thus, life explains the measurement problem of quantum theory within the framework of the holographic principle, emergent gravity, and emergent dimensionality. Each Planck triangle on a black hole surface corresponds to a qubit in an equal superposition, attaining known bounds on the products of its energies and orthogonalization interval. Black holes generate entropy variation shells through the solid-angle correspondence. The entropic work introduces the bounds on the number of active Planck triangles dependent on the information capacity of the black hole generator. The velocity and dissipativity bounds and the bounds on the theoretical probabilities for active, energy-carrying Planck triangles were derived. In particular, this study shows that black holes, Turing machines, and viruses cannot assume the role of an observer. The entropy variation shells and black-body objects may hint at solutions to ball lightning and sonoluminescence unexplained physical spherical phenomena.“It is also possible that we learned that the principal problem is no longer the fight with the adversities of nature but the difficulty of understanding ourselves if we want to survive” [1].

How does ball lightning work?

The results of observations are described when ball lightning left material traces in the form of stone, metal balls, and molten metal after disappearing. There are also cases where ball lightning moved heavy objects over long distances: iron cages, people, magnets and even a train. This is explained by an assumption that the attraction of objects to ball lightning proceeds due to their polarization in its electric field and action of the electric field of clouds on it. Events are described when ball lightning dug trenches in wet soil and made deep holes in the ground. An explanation for these actions is given.

Explosions of Ball Lightning inside Enclosed Spaces

According to observations, the energy density contained inside ball lightning can reach 1010 J/m3, and its charge can range from 10−3 to 10−1 C. Witnesses often report seeing moving sparks about one millimeter in size inside the ball lightning shell. When the ball lightning shell ruptures, charge carriers fly out of it in the form of a sheaf of sparks. For many years, the press has published reports of the destruction of houses inside of which a ball lightning explosion had occurred. These events remained unexplained for a long time. This article, for the first time in the world, provides a physical explanation of these events. This article is based on the ball lightning model developed by the authors. According to this model, ball lightning consists of an ensemble of positively charged elements (dynamic electric capacitors) located inside a spherical shell of polarized water molecules. The dynamic capacitor is a system of cyclically moving electrons and ions. The expansion of this capacitor is restrained by the compression force of the ball lightning shell in the non-uniform electric field of the ball lightning core. The model allows us to find a physical explanation for most of the observed properties of ball lightning. Using the example of a simplified model of ball lightning (when the contribution of the kinetic energy of the dynamic capacitors was not taken into account), an analysis of the forces acting inside ball lightning was carried out. It was shown that when the shell of ball lightning is destroyed, the charges emitted from the core remain on the walls of the room or on loose objects for some time. The Coulomb force of the repulsion of charges turns out to be large enough to squeeze out the walls of a building or throw a heavy object or person out of the house.

Traces of the action of ball lightning as material for studying its structure

According to observations, at the site of the ball lightning disappearance there are no traces left except a cloud of vapor. This reduces the number of materials for its formation in nature to air and water molecules. It is shown that, using these materials, it is possible to create a model of ball lightning with an energy reserve with a density up to 1010 J/m3. Ball lightning has an electrical charge and mass. It is capable of heating water, tearing off bark from trees, jumping on the ground, cutting discs in glass, and melting holes in metal barriers. An explanation for this behavior of ball lightning is given.

Reasons of ball lightning levitation

Descriptions of observations of the movement of ball lightning down from the cloud and up to the cloud are given. Based on this, it was concluded that it has a positive charge. The case was considered when ball lightning resisted the action of the wind due to attraction to the cloud. Examples of ball lightning “hovering” at a certain height above the ground are described. To explain this, a hypothesis was proposed about formation in the space between ball lightning and the conductor a cloud of clusters having a charge of the same sign as the charge of ball lightning. This idea was tested experimentally. It is shown that the process of formation of a “cloud” of charges near ball lightning can be the reason for the existence of groups of ball lightning associated with each other. Examples of descriptions of ball lightning movement near a flying aircraft and inside its cabin are given. An explanation of these events is given.

Vapor Phase Electrochemistry: The Missing Science

Several aspects of physics have been adversely effected by the fact that vapor phase electrochemistry has proved impossible to quantify. By the end of the 19th century, physicists had encountered several strange observations that appeared to involve chemistry. Eventually, it was realized that, in a moist gas, no rate process involving ions is quantifiable since we possess no valid relationship between the concentrations of electrolytes and their thermodynamic activities. There are both technical and societal reasons for this problem. Until both problems have been addressed, no reliable quantitative conclusions can be drawn for any system where ionic electrostriction in a moist gas is important. The most obvious consequences of the missing science are misconceptions concerning naturally contained air plasmas such as ball lightning, tornadic lights, and unpredictable flying objects (UFOs). None of these phenomena violates any known law of physics, but this only becomes clear once the absence of applicable, strictly valid theories is accepted. Fortunately, partial solutions to the problem exist if use is made of qualitative arguments. Using this approach, it can be seen that all the apparently anomalous characteristics of atmospheric plasmas result from a balance between different physical and chemical driving forces. A better understanding of the chemical consequences of electrostriction should have two long-term benefits. One relates to understanding the corrosive properties of high-pressure steam. The other concerns the specific chemical processes that stabilize air plasmas. If stable air plasmas could be simulated, a plentiful supply of carbon-free energy would become available.

Microwave diagnostics of pulsed atmospheric discharge with electrolytic electrode and long‐lived luminous formation in its afterglow

AbstractThe Gatchina discharge phenomenon holds significant promise as a laboratory model for simulating ball lightning. However, crucial aspects concerning the plasma components of the resulting afterglow remain unresolved. Notably, the measurement of the electron density, a critical parameter, has not been fully achieved thus far. In this study, microwave diagnostics and video recording were employed during a pulsed Gatchina discharge, along with synchronous measurement of discharge current and voltage. Distinct antennas were positioned at different heights to enable separate diagnosis of the discharge and the ensuing long‐lived afterglow. The findings revealed that during the active phase of the Gatchina discharge, the plasma density was substantial enough to cause reflection of an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of 20 GHz from this highly conductive object. In the afterglow, the signal experienced only a moderate weakening of 10–20 percent, facilitating the determination of the time dependence of average electron density during the afterglow's passage between the two antennas. These measurements verified the unusually slow plasma decay in the afterglow of the Gatchina discharge, suggesting the potential significance of chemi‐ionisation processes involving long‐lived (metastable) particles.

Rotational dynamics of a ball lightning

In this paper we study rotational dynamics of a ball lightning. Cases of deceleration and acceleration of rotation are described, which suggests that the cause of rotation may be the internal movement of elements of the ball lightning core. A model for particles separation from the surface of a rotating ball lightning is presented. It is also shown a qualitative explanation of the interaction of rotational moments of the ball lightning core elements, causing a change in the rotation speed of the ball.

The danger of ball lightning

Ball lightning in close contact with living beings can strike them with electric current or high-frequency radio emission. The current, passing through the surface of the skin, can cause it to burn. The entry of current into the region of the heart or the respiratory center of the brain can lead to death. High-frequency radio emission from ball lightning occurs in the wavelength range of 1-10 cm and can be absorbed by liquid water. When ball lightning comes into close contact with the body, blood heating and muscle rupture can occur. Cases of the indicated action of ball lightning on people are given. It is shown that the charge of ball lightning can be kept in a shell consisting of polarized water molecules. The reason for the generation of electromagnetic radiation of ball lightning is the cyclic movement of electrons in closed orbits. The radiation power sharply increases when the uniform distribution of electrons along the orbit is violated. It had been proven that dashed traces that appear on photographic films during electrical discharges in water are created by the action of multiply charged clusters having the structure of ball lightning. These clusters can penetrate the skin into living organisms and remain in them for a long time. The biological effect of these clusters has not yet been studied, but there is evidence that they are hazardous to health (causing cancer and liver damage).

Water Aerosol in an Artificial Analogue of Natural Ball Lightning

Water Aerosol in an Artificial Analogue of Natural Ball Lightning

Modeling the Neuruppin ball lightning incident

In 1994, a 370-kA positive cloud-to-ground (CG) discharge 5 km east of Neuruppin, Germany was immediately followed by the production of at least ten ball lightning objects seen by numerous eyewitnesses. We propose a sequence of events based on observations of upward lightning triggered by CG flashes which can explain how a large ground-level electric field (∼1 MV m−1) could be produced by negative leaders extending into a region of positive charge above Neuruppin, resulting in transfer of a large amount of charge horizontally between the CG discharge and the region of high electric field. This model provides a causal link between the large CG discharge east of Neuruppin and the large ground-level fields which were associated with the production of ball lightning. Recommendations follow for producing ball lightning in a large laboratory experiment.