Life-space Theory Research Articles

The image and customer well-being stems from banking activities

PurposeThis study, by applying psychological life-space theory, aims to identify the role of banking activities in customers’ well-being.Design/methodology/approachFollowing a quantitative approach, a two-stage method of structural equation modelling was used to test the hypotheses. Through a close-ended questionnaire, data were obtained from banks’ customers. A partial least squares regression was used to test both inner and outer models. Sample power software was used to calculate the minimum sample size of the study.FindingsA new variable namely customer well-being stems from banking activities identified which is assumed to be influenced by bank’s image, perceived value and aroused emotions. It was tested that word of mouth and bank’s marketing activities have impacts on the bank’s image. Moreover, by differentiating the images of different entities, it was proposed that comparative images could be considered as moderating variable. Furthermore, the mediating role of perceived value and aroused emotions are documented.Originality/valueApplying psychological life-space theory, a new concept that is not limited to the financial aspect of well-being presented and tested. Although researchers in different filed of studies applied this theory, this is the first time that a study presents nominal and operational definitions of the role of banks in customers’ well-being. Moreover, for the first time in the bank marketing literature, images of different entities including consumer’s image, image of bank’s employee and image of bank’s competitors were separated and their causal relations were statistically tested.

LGBTQ+ youth: Careers threats and interventions

In an era of rapid development, the world is showing greater openness towards diversity and inclusiveness. There is also an increasing amount of career-related research that has shed light on the LGBTQ+ population. Still, the literature reports many career issues that concern young LGBTQ+ individuals. The current article aimed to highlight the contributing issues that might impact young LGBTQ+ groups’ career development, mental health, and well-being – in particular, the issues of workplace hostility, the costs of self-identity disclosure, self-identity confusion, and inadequate career counselling and guidance services. These issues are discussed through the lens of three major career theories: Super’s life-span, life-space theory, Gottfredson’s circumscription and compromise theory, and Krumboltz’s social learning theory. The aim was to equip career counsellors with a better understanding of the challenges facing LGBTQ+ youth and to suggest potentially useful interventions.

A moderated-mediation model of career adaptability and life satisfaction among working adults in Malaysia

Career adaptability refers to the concept of individuals taking charge of their own career development by staying concern, control, curious and confident. Since the career adaptability measurement scale was made available in 2012, the concept has been extended to various samples and consistently found its applicability across many countries. This study intends to continue with this line of research by extending its nomological network to another country (i.e. Malaysia) using a unique sample (work and study adults who enroll in a post-graduate degree program). We also responded to the call for identifying the conditions and mechanisms in which career adaptability may bring differential effect to the life satisfaction outcome. Based on 200 sets of data collected, it was found that career adaptability predicted life satisfaction through a moderated (connectedness) and mediation (job satisfaction) relationship. The results provided empirical evidence on the universality of the career adaptability scale, Career Construction Theory and the Life-Span, Life-Space theory. Juggling between work and studies, individuals with higher career adaptability was found to enjoy higher job satisfaction under the condition of high connectedness (getting support and help from family, university, neighbour and friends). The joy of job satisfaction then spilt over to other life domains and manifested in life satisfaction.

Age and career commitment: Meta-analytic tests of competing linear versus curvilinear relationships

Career commitment refers to individuals' dedication to their career, profession, or occupation, and has been studied for nearly four decades. Over time, multiple definitions and operationalizations of career commitment have emerged within the literature, making direct comparisons across primary studies difficult. Likewise, mixed findings with respect to the relationship between age and career commitment can be found across studies. To address these issues, we present the results of an updated meta-analysis of the relationship between age and career commitment. Drawing from life-span, life-space theory, we offer competing hypotheses about potential linear and curvilinear relationships between age and career commitment. Consistent with past meta-analytic work, we find evidence for a small positive relationship between age and career commitment (rmean = 0.079, 95% CI 0.050 to 0.108, K = 112 independent samples, N = 54,481 respondents). Qualifying this, however, we also find evidence that this relationship is non-linear, exhibiting a curvilinear relationship. This finding is explored using two different meta-analytic strategies, at both the between-person and between-study level of analysis, and through two primary empirical studies. Although the form of the curvilinear relationship observed differs based upon the level of analysis considered, the results of this work generally support propositions from life-span, life-space theory, and associated predictions from related theories of aging and career development, about the age-graded nature of career commitment.

Subjective quality of leisure & worker well-being: Validating measures & testing theory

For many workers, leisure is a highly valued part of life. Yet, workers' leisure experiences have largely been overlooked in the career development and work-life literatures. This paper addresses the question of when workers' leisure experiences—and compatibility between work and leisure roles—are important for workers' overall subjective well-being (SWB). We draw on Super's life-span, life-space theory of career development to posit that the subjective quality of workers' leisure experiences—and lack of conflict between work and leisure roles—is important for SWB, especially when leisure roles are highly salient relative to other roles. In three studies, we develop and validate scales to measure the subjective quality of leisure (i.e., leisure affect and leisure satisfaction) and test our hypotheses using a heterogeneous sample of working adults. Results provide evidence for the reliability and validity of our new measures and suggest that the subjective quality of workers' leisure experiences influence workers' overall SWB beyond the effects of the subjective quality of job and family experiences—often regardless of levels of relative leisure role salience. However, work-leisure conflict does not appear to substantially influence overall SWB beyond the effects of work-family conflict, even when relative leisure role salience is high. We discuss implications for the career development and work-life literatures.

A Thematic Analysis of Career Adaptability in Retirees Who Return to Work.

Retirement can no longer be conceptualized as disengagement, as the end of a person’s career, as it is in the life-span, life-space theory. Increasingly, retirees are returning to work, in paid, and unpaid positions, in a part-time or full-time capacity, as an act of re-engagement. Vocational psychology theories are yet to adequately conceptualize the phenomenon of retirees’ re-engagement in work. The research reported in this paper is the first attempt to understand re-engagement through the theoretical lens of career construction theory (CCT) and its central construct, career adaptability. The study involved intensive interviews with 22 retirees between the ages of 56 and 78 years (M = 68.24), who had retired no less than 1 year prior to the study. Participants were engaged in a discussion about their reasons for returning to the world of work. Thematic analysis of interview transcripts extracted evidence of the four career adaptability resources: concern, control, curiosity, and confidence. In addition, the influence of family and making a contribution were discerned as important themes. These findings are the first evidence that the CCT and career adaptability provide a new conceptual lens to theorize and conduct research into the phenomenon of retirement.

Employee age and reactions to downsizing.

The present study explored the career development concerns among employees varying by age who had worked for organizations that either had or had not engaged in downsizing within a 1-year timeframe. The sample consisted of 72 layoff survivors and 92 non-survivors (employees whose organizations had not downsized). Each completed an online survey assessing career concerns framed in the context of Super's Life Span Life Space theory of career development, as well as measures assessing perceptions of loss, job insecurity, distress, social support, loss history, religiosity, and job satisfaction. Younger employees reported more job dissatisfaction, as did survivors, and younger survivors reported more such dissatisfaction relative to older survivors, and saw the downsizing as less equitable than did older survivors. Among non-survivors, age effects were minimal. Younger employees reported more concerns about Crystallization, Specification, Implementation, Innovation, Stabilizing, Consolidating, Advancing, and Updating, as did survivors. For Crystallization, and to a lesser extent for Innovation, younger survivors reported more such concerns than did older survivors, while among non-survivors, these differences were minimal. A similar age by survivorship pattern was found for psychophysical health, career-recycling tendencies, and for concerns at Super's career stages/maxicycles of Exploration, Establishment, and Maintenance. These findings suggest that young survivors appear to be less vocationally adaptable, more vocationally and personally vulnerable to downsizing, and more impacted in seeing downsizing as unfair, perhaps due to unrealistic career trajectory expectations. In contrast, older employees, perhaps due to increased job and/or layoff experience or the perception that downsizing was handled more equitably via greater loyalty to the organization, appear to be more resilient in these respects.

Redirection: An Extension of Career During Retirement

This study explores (a) whether retirees' formal volunteer experiences represent an extension of their career in the paid workforce; and (b) how this integration of life roles affects career self-concept, as interpreted through Donald Super's life-span, life-space theory of career development. A survey was conducted involving a Canadian sample of 214 individuals aged 55-75 years to examine retirees' volunteer activities and their sense of self. The results demonstrate the need to further develop Super's theory with the addition of a new developmental stage, which I am labeling "Redirection" to better reflect postretirement experiences. During "Redirection," retirees develop a "new self." This study indicates that retirees experienced a new stage of "Redirection" and found new meaning through volunteer work during retirement. The results will be of interest to professionals and researchers focused on career development, older workers, and retirement.

The Constructivist Résumé: Promoting the Career Adaptability of Graduate Students in Counseling Programs

The authors present the constructivist résumé, an original approach developed to promote professional identity development and career adaptability (i.e., concern, curiosity, confidence, and control) in students completing graduate‐level counselor training programs. The authors discuss underlying theories, including Super's (1990; Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996) life span, life space theory and Peavy's (1998) SocioDynamic Counseling Model, and their applications to career counseling. They also provide a detailed case illustration, make practical recommendations, and note the advantages and limitations of the approach.

Career development and counselling for women: Connecting theories to practice

Women's career development is more complex than that of men due to a number of internal and external barriers, including early gender-role orientation, employment inequities, and family responsibilities, which both complicate and restrict women's career choices and advancement. This paper attempts to examine the application of career development theoretical models in the context of career development and counselling for women. It begins with a discussion of some of the internal and external barriers associated with North American women's career development. It then briefly reviews some of the key tenets from three career development theories, namely, Gottfredson's theory of circumscription, compromise, and self-creation, Super's life-span, life-space theory, and the social cognitive career theory (SCCT) in relation specifically to women's career development experiences. The paper concludes with considerations of intervention strategies that aim to address the particular needs of women, including essential aspects such as the counsellor's knowledge and skill, and relevant helping approaches and methods that pertain to the career welfare of female clients.

Work-Family Interface

The objective of this study is to achieve a better understanding of the interrelationships between work and family commitment, work-family conflict, coping, and satisfaction with work and family roles. Super's life-span, life-space theory provides a framework for the study. Participants ( N= 154) are married, employed, college graduates who completed questionnaires regarding their work and family roles. A path model of work-family interface is proposed and tested against an alternative model. Results indicate that the proposed path model adequately fits the data, and this model is deemed better than the alternative model. Implications of the findings are discussed, and directions for future research are provided.

The Effects of Role Congruence and Role Conflict on Work, Marital, and Life Satisfaction

The impact of role congruence and role conflict on work, marital, and life satisfaction was studied using Super’s life-span, life-space theory. A conceptual model of relationships between these variables was proposed, and gender differences were examined. Participants were 35 male and 60 female college graduates who completed surveys by mail. Results indicated adequate fit for the proposed model. Results of gender analyses indicated that women in this study participated more in parenting and housework, whereas men participated more in career and leisure activities. Despite the differences in actual role participation, no gender differences were found regarding ideal role participation. Both men and women reported that the parent role was most rewarding. Implications for counselors and directions for future research were discussed.

Work-Family Interface for Same-Sex, Dual-Earner Couples: Implications for Counselors

The author highlights information for career counselors to consider when addressing work-family interface with individuals who are members of same-sex, dual-earner couples or families. D. E. Super's (1990) life-span, life-space theory is the framework used to organize the literature review and discussion of current trends. Issues related to the roles of worker, partner, parent, stepparent, and caregiver are discussed. Suggestions are provided for career counselors. A significant amount of research has been devoted to the study of workfamily interface (for a review, see Perry-Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter, 2000). The majority of this research has focused on heterosexual dual-earner couples. Although they share some similar experiences with heterosexual, dual-earner couples, same-sex, dual-earner couples encounter additional obstacles and have unique advantages over heterosexual dual-earner couples. The focus of this article is on issues for career counselors to consider when counseling individuals who are members of same-sex, dual-earner couples. Current trends in the workplace are analyzed in relation to counseling with this population, and some potentially useful theoretical approaches and counseling strategies are discussed. Super's (1990) life-span, life-space theory emphasizes the importance of implementing one's self-concept through a combination of life roles. The work role is addressed in the context of other life roles. Individuals experience varying degrees of participation in, valuing of, and commitment to these roles (Super, 1990). In this article, the roles of worker, partner, parent, stepparent, and caregiver for individuals within same-sex, dual-earner couples are discussed. If career counselors can help these individuals learn to combine work and family roles in productive and satisfying ways, counselors have the opportunity to enhance their quality of life significantly. The Work Role In recent years, dramatic workplace changes, such as widespread downsizing and large plant closures, have threatened job security for millions of workers (Crouter & Manke, 1994), and the rate of involuntary job loss has been increasing (Attewell, 1999). Employees who lose their job as a result of downsizing may need to retrain for different jobs, relocate to other geographic locations, or learn to cope with being forced into unemployment. Employees who remain in an organization after major downsizing has occurred often have increased workloads because they must assume responsibility for some of the work that had previously been done by workers who were let go, resulting in job stress and decreased workplace morale. Approximately 30% of displaced workers may be unemployed for a year or more (Attewell, 1999). Longer unemployment can lead to decreased salaries and greater chances of future job displacements (Attewell, 1999) as well as to lower self-esteem. Career counselors must help individuals define their work role in these uncertain and unpredictable times. Counselors can encourage clients to develop a broad range of transferable skills and to keep skills current through continuing education and training. Counselors can also help clients who have lost their jobs learn to cope with the stress of this event and transition toward new positions. Career counselors are also increasingly called on to help clients make career decisions within the context of their family roles as well as in the context of their other major life roles. Members of same-sex, dual-earner couples face additional challenges in this volatile work environment. In most cases, insurance covers only the employed individual and not the family members of same-sex couples. Thus, if one partner loses a job, he or she cannot rely on the other partner's insurance benefits. The financial burden of paying for health care compounds the hardship caused by loss of wages. Another economic issue discussed by Fassinger (1995) is that women's earnings remain consistently lower than men's, and lesbian couples are more likely to have children living with them than are gay male couples. …

Individualism and Collectivism: A Framework for Examining Career Programs through a Cultural Lens

Cultural diversity and the cultural context of adolescent career development are explored through the lens of the cultural syndromes of individualism and collectivism. The individualist cultural value orientation of some of the main theoretical perspectives that underpin career education and counselling practice in schools is highlighted. In particular; the self-concept and career maturity segments of Super's (1990) lifespan, lifespace theory, career interests, career decision making and the career counselling process are examined with reference to the cultural syndromes of individualism and collectivism. Also discussed is the potential inappropriateness of theoretical perspectives that reflect an individualist cultural value orientation for the career development of all students. Finally, Leong and Serafica's (2001) cultural accommodation approach to enhancing the cultural relevance of existing career theories and models is outlined. Some examples of strategies are presented that might fill cultural gaps, which may exist in career education and counselling practices in schools.

The Effects of Role Congruence and Role Conflict on Work, Marital, and Life Satisfaction

The impact of role congruence and role conflict on work, marital, and life satisfaction was studied using Super's life-span, life-space theory. A conceptual model of relationships between these variables was proposed, and gender differences were examined. Participants were 35 male and 60 female college graduates who completed surveys by mail. Results indicated adequate fit for the proposed model. Results of gender analyses indicated that women in this study participated more in parenting and housework, whereas men participated more in career and leisure activities. Despite the differences in actual role participation, no gender differences were found regarding ideal role participation. Both men and women reported that the parent role was most rewarding. Implications for counselors and directions for future research were discussed.

The impact of life role salience on life satisfaction

The authors examined the relationships among life role salience, role strain, coping efficacy, and life satisfaction for adults (N = 125) who combine multiple life roles. Causal modeling procedures were used to test hypotheses based on D. E. Super's (1980, 1990) life‐span, life‐space theory and the social cognitive career theory (R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, & G. Hackett, 2000). They hypothesized that high role salience would be related to high levels of role strain and that coping efficacy would mediate the impact of role strain on participants' life satisfaction. Results indicated that the proposed model fit the data for the present sample.

Advancing Life‐Span, Life‐Space Theory: Introduction to the Special Section

Shortly after Donald E. Super's death in 1994, the National Career Development Association (Hartung, 1995) and the Counseling Psychology Division in the American Psychological Association (Savickas, 1995) each sponsored a symposium to honor the man and his contributions to career theory and practice. Both symposia mixed presentations that emphasized recollections of Super's accomplishments with presentations that speculated about how to continue to develop his life-span, life-space theory for comprehending and intervening in careers. This special section contains expanded versions of the presentations that concentrated on how to advance and further articulate life-span, life-space theory. The section opens with Edwin Herr identifying five possible areas in which the theory could be refined. The first category involves improving several fundamental concepts such as replacing self-concept dimensions and metadimensions with a social constructionist framework and replacing career maturity with career adaptability when reference is to adults. The second and third categories involve increased attention to the impact of economic changes and the reduction of social barriers to career development. The final two categories deal with evaluating and improving the model and measures for career development assessment and counseling. In the second article, Mark Savickas proposes that adaptation can serve as a bridging construct for integrating the diverse segments in life-span, life-space theory. Furthermore, he suggests that, in the life-span developmental aspect of Super's theory, life-role adaptability should replace career maturity as the cardinal construct. As a multidimensional construct, adaptability can be characterized by the processes of planning, exploring, and deciding. Foresight, or planful attitudes and planning skills, remains the core dimension in the developmental perspective on adaptability, yet exploring and deciding take on increased importance as developmental processes that foster adaptability to and in life roles. In the next article, David Blustein offers a context-rich perspective on how exploration constitutes a critical dimension in adaptability for life roles. He describes both the optimal antecedent conditions that foster exploratory activity and the likely outcomes of exploration. Blustein encourages practitioners and researchers to incorporate social constructionist thought as they help clients selfexplore and develop lifelong exploratory attitudes. …