Material Life Cycle Assessment Research Articles

Life cycle assessment of manual toothbrush materials

BackgroundA manual toothbrush is an indispensable tool for promoting and maintaining oral health worldwide but given the non-biodegradable and non-recyclable thermoplastic materials from which it is made, it cannot be considered free of threats to the environment. Therefore, also in light of the World Dental Federation's goals to implement and initiate policies for sustainable dentistry, this study evaluates the sustainability of two materials most used for manual toothbrush bristles, namely nylon, and silicone.ObjectivesThe objective is to investigate the optimal solution to reduce the environmental impact of toothbrushes, and how the environmental impact would change if only the brush head was changed instead of the entire toothbrush.MethodsLife Cycle Assessment and Carbon Footprint were used. Four manual toothbrushes with nylon bristles, and a handle in polypropylene with/without silicone parts (N1, N2, N3, N4) and two manual toothbrushes, with silicone bristles, but one with polypropylene handle only (Si1), the other with polypropylene handle and silicone parts (Si2) were evaluated.ResultsA toothbrush with silicone bristles is more sustainable than one with nylon bristles in all 18 impact categories, with average values of − 14%. In addition, eliminating only the brush head instead of the entire toothbrush could result in savings of 4.69 × 10‒3 kg CO2 eq per toothbrush. Therefore, based on the results of this study and to meet Dentistry's need to reduce its environmental impact, the ideal toothbrush should be lightweight, with less superfluous material, and with less impactful materials such as silicone instead of nylon.ConclusionsThe concluding indications for improving the sustainability of toothbrushes are therefore: (i) eliminate the amount of superfluous material; (ii) develop lighter models; and (iii) develop models in which only the brush head is replaced rather than the entire toothbrush.

Research on Low-Carbon Design and Energy Efficiency by Harnessing Indigenous Resources through BIM-Ecotect Analysis in Hot Climates

In the face of contemporary challenges, such as economic instability, environmental degradation, and the urgent global warming crisis, the imperative of sustainability and energy efficiency has reached unparalleled significance. Sustainability encompasses not only the natural environment, but also extends to our immediate surroundings, including the built structures and the communities they serve. Embracing this comprehensive perspective, we embarked on a mission to conceive and construct a model house that harnesses state-of-the-art energy-efficient technologies. Our goal was to seamlessly integrate these features not only to meet our sustainability objectives, but also to mitigate environmental threats.This model embodies a harmonious fusion of indigenous resources, employing locally sourced stone and employing traditional construction techniques. Through this approach, we achieved significant reductions in carbon emissions and established a framework for passive cooling and heating systems. Moreover, the design is intrinsically attuned to its contextual surroundings, preserving the diverse tapestry of regional architectural styles. This study stands as a testament to the potential of innovative design and technology in shaping a sustainable future. The research employs a multi-dimensional approach, encompassing strategies of architectural design with a traditional planning approach, sustainable material selection, energy efficiency, and life cycle assessment across a diverse set of case studies. Building energy analysis is conducted through the application of BIM (Ecotect), providing insights into how BIM can adapt and thrive in various environments. Key findings underscore that thermal performance, minimizing energy loads, and reducing carbon emissions are pivotal aspects in designating a building as both green and energy efficient.

ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT AND MATERIAL COMPOSITION COMPARISON OF SINGLE-USE AND REUSABLE DUODENOSCOPES.

Infection outbreaks associated with contaminated reusable duodenoscopes (RDs) have induced the development of novel single-use duodenoscopes (SDs). This study aims to analyse the material composition and life cycle assessment (LCA) of RDs and SDs to assess the sustainability of global and partial SD implementation. A single-centre study evaluated material composition analysis and LCA of one RD and two SDs from different manufacturers (A, B). Material composition analysis was performed to evaluate the thermochemical properties of the duodenoscope components. Carbon footprint was calculated using environmental software. We compared the sustainability strategies of universal use of RDs, frequent use of RDs with occasional SDs, and universal use of SDs over the lifetime of one RD. RDs were substantially heavier (3489 g) than SD-A (943 g) and SD-B (715.5 g). RDs were mainly metallic alloys (95%), whereas SDs were mainly plastic polymers and resins (70-81%). The LCA demonstrated the sustainability of RDs, with a lifecycle carbon footprint 62-82 times lower compared to the universal use of SDs (151.7 vs. 10512-12640 kg CO2-eq) and 10 times lower compared to the occasional use of SDs (151.7 vs. 1417.3-1676.6 kg CO2-eq). Differences were observed between SD-A and SD-B (7.9 vs. 6.6 kg CO2-eq per endoscope). End-of-life incineration emissions for SDs were the most environmental contributors. Widespread adoption of SD has greater environmental challenges; it requires a balance between infection control and environmental responsibility. Carbon footprint labelling can help healthcare institutions make sustainable choices and promote environmentally responsible healthcare practices.

Gate-to-grave assessment of plastic from recycling to manufacturing of TENG: a comparison between India and Singapore

This study assesses the viability of recycled plastic-based triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) for sustainable energy harvesting in India and Singapore, concurrently examining plastic waste management. Using material flow analysis and life cycle assessment, the findings revealed that in Singapore, waste-to-energy incineration has a lower environmental impact than landfilling and mechanical recycling, attributed to natural gas usage. In India, recycling offsets impacts from incineration and landfilling, contributing to a lower net environmental impact. Economic performance of a TENG module from PET recyclates showed a 20% carbon footprint reduction when scaling up from lab to industrial “freeze-drying” processes. Key challenges in TENG manufacturing processes are also assessed for future development. This research highlights the potential of recycled plastic-based TENGs in sustainable energy and waste management.

Phosphate Removal Efficiency and Life Cycle Assessment of Different Anode Materials in Electrocoagulation Treatment of Wastewater

The excessive discharge of phosphorus-containing wastewater contributes to eutrophication, posing a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, methods such as electrocoagulation should be utilized to remove phosphorus from wastewater prior to discharging it into a water body. In this study, we aimed to determine the effectiveness of electrocoagulation in treating simulated phosphorus-containing wastewater under different parameters, including anode material (aluminum, iron, and magnesium), electrode distance (ED) (1, 2.5, and 4.5 cm), pH (3, 6, and 9), and current density (CD) (3, 6, and 9 mA/cm2). Additionally, three models of phosphate removal, the pseudo-first-order (PFO), pseudo-second-order (PSO), and Behnajady–Modirshahla–Ghanbery (BMG) models, were used to simulate the relationship between phosphate concentration and time in the electrocoagulation process using the three metals for phosphate removal. The experimental results showed that the aluminum system had the highest removal efficiency (90%) when energized for 20 min under a CD of 3 mA/cm2, followed by those of the iron (80%) and magnesium (35%) systems. Furthermore, a life cycle assessment (LCA) showed that the aluminum electrode system had a smaller environmental impact than the iron and magnesium electrode systems. Therefore, the aluminum electrode system is suitable for phosphorus removal from wastewater.

Modeling stock, material and environmental impacts of circular economy product policies. Trade-offs between early replacement and repair of electric motors

New modeling challenges are accompanying the shift in EU product policy toward an increased focus on circular economy aspects. Combined material flow analysis and life cycle assessment can play an important role in assessing the impact of such policies. A flexible model has been developed that is suitable for the ex-ante impact assessment of the material flows and environmental impacts of a range of circular economy product policies, extending an established approach. The model uses a layered approach, in which material and environmental impacts are derived from product flows via a product database that defines physical properties for product variants. Combined with a stock model, the impact of policy interventions on the whole market can be assessed over time and per life cycle stage. We apply this model in a theoretical case study on electric motors, which compares early replacement of inefficient motors and motor repair with a base case.

Evaluating mitigation strategies for building stocks against absolute climate targets

With the growing urgency of addressing climate change it is increasingly important that decision makers at all levels are equipped to take efficient mitigation actions. This research evaluates the potential of four mitigation strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the building stock based on a case study, and these are further evaluated in terms of alignment with the remaining global emission budget and the planetary boundary for global warming. The results cover annual emissions from 2023 to 2050 across 18 impact categories, thus highlighting possible impact burden-shifting that may occur as a result of the mitigation strategies. The results show that decarbonisation of the electricity grid delivers a substantial reduction across impact categories. However, in absolute terms, this is counteracted by the increase in building stock. The results also show that current estimates for mitigation potentials are insufficient to comply with the remaining global emission budget. Thus, mitigation strategies should be even more ambitious: constructing 80% fewer new buildings and reducing operational energy demand by 80%. These findings highlight the urgency of taking multiple actions. The increase in demand for new buildings needs to be challenged. Practice relevance Present urban mitigation strategies are inadequate for meeting the stated GHG targets. To enable informed decisions it is important to quantify the effects of different strategies. Traditional life cycle assessments have static inventories and impacts can therefore not be temporarily differentiated and transparency cannot be provided on long-term potentials. This study suggests combining material flow analysis and life cycle assessment to enable integration of dynamic parameters into the life cycle inventory. This shows how the long-term effectiveness of different mitigation strategies can be evaluated. To ensure unintended burden-shifting does not occur, results cover annual emissions from 2023 to 2050 across 18 impact categories. Furthermore, this study showcases how strategies can be designed to align with global commitments such as those set by the Paris Agreement.

Life cycle assessment of mycelium-based composite materials

Mycelium-based composites (MBCs) show promising acoustic and thermal insulation, fire safety, and mechanical strength properties and are suitable for multiple applications in the construction, packing or furniture industry. A life cycle assessment confirmed climate change and fossil energy demand benefits in a laboratory scale production modelled for Germany. MBC are associated with 0.3668 kg CO2e / kg MBC (EN 15804 + A2). The electricity required to run MBC production and hemp cultivation, if used as a substrate, contribute significantly to the environmental impact categories considered. Compared to conventional insulation materials, environmental advantages of MBC can be confirmed. Particularly, MBC has a better climate change impact than extruded polystyrene, quadcore sandwich panel, foam concrete and rockwool. However, since the end-of-life is not assessed, the wood-fiber and straw panels perform better regarding climate change. Moreover, MBC has lower fossil energy demand than all conventional insulation materials. Land-use and water demand are higher than for conventional materials.

3D printing earth: Local, circular material processing, fabrication methods, and Life Cycle Assessment

Additive manufacturing with earth is an emerging, though largely uncharacterized, approach to fabricating low embodied carbon structures. It is critical to establish methods for processing 3D printed, locally sourced earthen materials in different environments to validate large-scale earthen additive manufacturing as a tool to address a growing global need for housing and climate-resilient architecture. We present a set of reproducible design guidelines for sourcing, processing, and characterizing locally sourced earthen materials. Soil type, moisture and fiber content, particle size distribution, and unconfined compressive strength are determined. Additionally, novel bridging, cantilevering, and hydrostatic pressure (formwork) testing methods are developed to link design constraints for full-scale printed structures to material characteristics. Modular and conformally printed full-scale wall prototypes are printed with a 6-axis robotic system. A Life Cycle Assessment of the prototypical earth printing system is conducted, establishing a point of comparison to the climate impact of other construction systems, including rammed earth, concrete masonry units, and 3D printed mortar. We demonstrate that printing highly functional building elements with repeatable mechanical characteristics is possible using locally sourced earth mixtures. By illustrating a range of reproducible material and geometric possibilities, we expand the design space of additive earth and its applications.

Energy, economic, and environmental (3E) assessment of the major greenhouse crops: MFCA-LCA approach.

In order to develop sustainable production of greenhouse crops, the economic, energy, and environmental aspects of production should be considered. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the economic, energy, and environmental (3E) sustainability of cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper production in greenhouses by performing material flow cost accounting (MFCA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) material and methods. Calculating the economic and energy value of losses in agricultural sustainability assessment studies is not common. Using the LCA method alone does not allow us to calculate the monetary and energy value of waste. If this method is used simultaneously with MFCA, this gap will be filled. The system boundary for LCA was from cradle to farm, and for MFCA, foreground processes were considered. The production of each crop was compared at the level of 1000 m2 during 1year. Data were collected through questionnaire-based interviews. The gross value of production for cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper were 8982, 16387, and 17610 $/1000 m2, respectively. The negative production of cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper were 702, 718, and 449 $/1000 m2, respectively. The benefit-to-cost ratio in the production of cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper was calculated as 2.8, 5.17, and 5.8, respectively. The economic productivity in the production of cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper was calculated at 10.25, 7, and 4.4kg/$. Labor cost was the main cost in the production of all three crops. The total input energy for the production of cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper was estimated to be 99.4, 123.1, and 164.6 GJ/1000 m2, respectively. Negative products in the production of cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper were obtained at - 24.2, - 23.9, and - 13.5 GJ/1000 m2, respectively. The energy productivity of cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper was calculated as 0.23, 0.26, and 0.08kg/MJ, respectively. The specific energy indices were 4.32, 3.79, and 12.20MJ/kg for cucumber, tomato, and bell pepper, respectively. The energy ratio in the production of tomato (0.02) was higher than bell pepper (- 0.02) and cucumber (- 0.06). From the perspective of energy, electricity was recognized as the hotspot for the production of three crops. Global warming (GWP100a), ozone layer depletion (ODP), acidification (AC), and eutrophication (EP) indices were calculated for all three crops. Tomato production was ranked first in all impact categories. On-farm emissions and electricity consumption were identified as environmental hotspots. The subsidized price of electricity, natural gas, and chemical fertilizers has led to their excessive use in the production of greenhouse plants. It can be concluded that bell pepper has the best performance from an economic point of view. However, its production is not justified in terms of energy. Tomato was ranked first in terms of energy, and cucumber was ranked first in terms of low environmental impacts. The production of these plants with energy and chemical fertilizer subsidies is currently cost-effective. If the prices are corrected, the production of these plants will face serious challenges. Producing electricity from sunlight and mechanizing production processes can be a solution to these challenges.

Life cycle assessment of thermal insulation materials produced from waste textiles

Life cycle assessment of thermal insulation materials produced from waste textiles

Life cycle assessment of low-dimensional materials for perovskite photovoltaic cells

Perovskite solar cells integrated with lower dimensional materials can outperform the environmental performance of conventional solar photovoltaic technologies such as crystalline silicon, CIGS, and CdTe with shorter lifetimes.

Regulation Mechanism for Designing Decarbonization Pathways in the Copper Industry Toward Carbon Neutrality.

The transformation of the global power structure caused by the carbon neutrality goal will promote copper consumption. It is crucial to explore the decarbonization pathways of the copper industry to help fulfill greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets. This study utilized material flow analysis and life cycle assessment methods to investigate 12 different subscenarios based on international trade, circular economy, technology evolution, and environmental market factors. Policy combination scenario is employed to reveal the mechanism of decarbonization. The results show that refined copper consumption in China is expected to increase by 62.3% in 2060 compared to 2020. The GHG emissions of China's copper industry will reach 9.1 million tonnes (Mt) CO2e in 2060, technology evolution and environmental market are crucial for realizing carbon neutrality goal of this industry, accounting for 26.4 and 47.2% of emissions reductions, respectively, between 2020 and 2060. International trade and circular economy play important roles in the high-quality carbon peaking stage; however, imported copper and domestic secondary copper will constitute the basic supply of copper resources in China in the long run, and the comparative advantages of them will gradually weaken. Policy combination scenario can achieve the incentive synergy effect, with GHG reduced to 0.5 Mt CO2e in 2060. The enhanced application of policies such as material substitution and carbon emission trading will further promote industry to achieve net-zero GHG emission. We suggest regulating the industry's structure based on the international systemic circulation pattern and accelerating the construction of a green circular chain in the short term to achieve sustainable copper supply and high-quality carbon peaking. Promoting a high-quality technology development strategy and enhancing the environmental markets are recommended in the long term to achieve carbon neutrality.

Simulation-based life cycle assessment of secondary materials from recycling of lithium-ion batteries

The EU Battery Regulation is aimed at minimizing negative impact of waste batteries on the environment. Recycling of lithium-ion batteries is one way to reduce those impacts. However, a lack of detailed process-level data is limiting the environmental impact assessment. In this study, the necessary data is generated using process simulation, and is used to estimate the material recovery rates and environmental impacts of a recycling nickel-manganese-cobalt-based battery. We apply and allocate the impacts of recycling to determine secondary battery material carbon footprints. The results were compared with that of primary raw materials based on mass-based and economic value-based allocation. In reference scenario, applying economic value-based allocation resulted in cobalt sulphate and nickel sulphate having 73.5 % and 57.4 % lower carbon footprint than their primary, however, lithium carbonate had a 20.8 % higher footprint. The results indicate the need to improve material recoveries for meeting EU Battery Regulation targets, while minimizing environmental impact.

Techno-economic and environmental life cycle assessment of next-generation fiber-encapsulated nanoscale hybrid materials for direct air carbon capture

A techno-economic and environmental life cycle assessment was conducted for manufacturing two novel types of solid sorbents used for direct air CO2 capture (DAC). One type of solid sorbent comprised Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/Organopolysilizane (OPSZ)/nanoscale organic hybrid materials (NOHM), and the other comprised polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIM)/NOHM. These solid sorbents were assumed to be manufactured via an unconventional route: electrospinning as fibers. Economic analyses revealed that manufacturing costs for a 0.73 MT/year capacity plant were $831 and $1398/kg of electrospun fiber in the case of PAN/OPSZ/NOHM and PIM/NOHM, respectively. The costs were higher for PIM/NOHM owing to high raw material prices (Spirobisindane and tetrafluoroterephthalonitrile), which are used only in manufacturing PIM. Scaling up the plant capacity from 0.73 to 30 MT/year decreased the manufacturing cost by nearly half from $831 to $379 in the case of PAN/OPSZ/NOHM, depicting the economies of scale effect. A life cycle assessment (LCA) of both types of solid sorbent was performed using OpenLCA software, the Ecoinvent v 3.5 database, and the TRACI LCI assessment method. The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of PAN/OPSZ/NOHM and PIM/NOHM was observed to be 151 × 10−3 and 166 × 10−3 kg CO2 eq. per kg CO2 captured in the DAC plant, respectively. These GWP values were nearly five times as high as those observed for other solid sorbents existing in the literature, such as PEI on silica gel, carbonate on silica, and carbonate on activated carbon, owing to the large amounts of electricity used in the electrospinning unit operation.

Properties, Microstructure Development and Life Cycle Assessment of Alkali-Activated Materials Containing Steel Slag under Different Alkali Equivalents.

To improve solid waste resource utilization and environmental sustainability, an alkali-activated material (AAM) was prepared using steel slag (SS), fly ash, blast furnace slag and alkali activators in this work. The evolutions of SS content (10-50%) and alkali equivalent (4.0-8.0%) on workability, mechanical strength and environmental indicators of the AAM were investigated. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques were adopted to characterize micromorphology, reaction products and pore structure, and the reaction mechanism was summarized. Results showed that the paste fluidity and setting time gradually increased with the increase in SS content. The highest compressive strength was obtained for the paste at 8.0% alkali equivalent due to the improved reaction rate and process, but it also increased the risk of cracking. However, SS was able to exert a microaggregate filling effect, where SS particles filling the pores increased the structural compactness and hindered crack development. Based on the optimal compressive strength, global warming, abiotic resource depletion, acidification and eutrophication potential of the paste are reduced by 76.7%, 53.0%, 51.6%, and 48.9%, respectively, compared with cement. This work is beneficial to further improve the utilization of solid waste resources and expand the application of environmentally friendly AAMs in the field of construction engineering.

Life cycle assessment of waste materials in deep cement mixing for land reclamation in Hong Kong

In recent years, researchers have shown increasing concern on the environmental impact attributed to traditional binders like cement, especially in mega-scale reclamation projects utilizing Deep Cement Mixing (DCM). The substitution of cement with alternative binders derived from construction and demolition waste as well as industrial slag waste is viewed as a potential strategy for mitigating the carbon footprint of this construction sector. In this study, the potential of using ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), steel slag (SS), and waste concrete powder (WCP) to partially replace cement in construction projects involving DCM is assessed based on a case study in Hong Kong. A detailed comparison through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is conducted to examine the carbon footprint of alternative binders. Various scenarios that involve substituting cement to different extents with alternative binders generated from waste materials have been considered. The results reveal that the grinding process is the main contributor to the Global Warming Potential (GWP) for GGBS and SS, accounting for over 57% in each case. For WCP, the GWP is distributed across separation, sieving, and loading. Utilizing alternative waste leads to a GWP reduction in all scenarios, primarily due to lower emissions from these secondary raw materials. Overall, substituting 60% of Portland cement with GGBS, SS, or WCP in DCM construction resulted in GWP reductions of 34.7%, 34.5%, and 35.8% of greenhouse gas emissions, respectively. Various transportation scenarios are explored when moving the supply of construction materials from a local to a regional level by considering various material suppliers and the associated transportation distance. The sensitivity analysis highlighted the significant impact of transportation distance on GWP. This underscores the importance of logistics analysis in land reclamation projects and the benefits of integrating alternative binders into DCM projects.

Life cycle assessment and life cycle cost analysis of different walling materials with an environmental approach (comparison between earth-based vs. conventional construction techniques in Iran)

PurposeClimate change, environmental concerns, and economic problems pose challenges to the construction sector in Iran, which must provide affordable solutions while addressing environmental issues. Hence, natural earthen building materials are critically needed to reduce energy-intensive and costly construction practices dramatically. The purpose of this paper is to provide a framework for comparing life cycle assessments (LCA) and life cycle costs (LCC), for load-bearing walls of an single-family affordable housing unit in a desert part of Iran, Ardakan City.MethodsTo do so, both LCA and LCC for the unit were performed, considering a cradle-to-site perspective. For this purpose, 22 load bearing wall systems are assessed, including 18 stabilized and unstabilized earthen construction techniques, such as adobe, rammed earth (RE), and compressed earth block (CEB), in addition to four conventional wall assemblies of fired brick (FB), autoclaved aerated concrete block (AAC), ceramic block (CB), and concrete masonry unit (CMU). As well as assessing the environmental impact and life cycle costs associated with the life cycle of each wall, the optimal assembly of the wall is also examined.ResultsResults show that unstabilized earthen walling alternatives have significantly lower environmental impacts than conventional materials.ConclusionsSensitivity analysis indicates that by utilizing local materials to the maximum extent possible, impacts can be further minimized. Considering the results, transportation may even account for a greater proportion of EI than wall components.

Life cycle assessment and economic analysis of Reusable formwork materials considering the circular economy

Economic development and population growth have impacted on fossil-based energy consumption, contributing to environmental pollution. Adopting circular economy research is more pressing than ever to ease pressure on the environment and the economy. Evaluating the best construction materials is not new. To date, many researchers have assessed materials using various criteria. Formwork differs from other construction materials in terms of serviceability and reusability. These materials may be reused multiple times (from 7 to around 50 times). This raises the question of which material is the best from a sustainability perspective. In this paper we have evaluated four of the most widely-used formwork materials used in the construction of buildings in Malaysia. These include plastic, steel, plywood and timber. Evaluations of life cycle assessment (LCA), embodied energy, and life cycle cost (LCC) were conducted from cradle to cradle. For a single use of formwork, timber is best in all categories except human non-carcinogenic toxicity. However, when 50 reuses are considered for the same wall a completely different result arises. In the environmental category, steel formwork produces the lowest emissions and impact in all categories except global warming potential (GWP). Plastic formwork has the lowest carbon emissions. In terms of embodied energy and cost, plastic formwork presents the best option being approximately 20% lower than steel formwork. Because of the inconsistency in the results for LCA, embodied energy, and LCC for 50-cycles of usage, a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) tool was used to normalize the results. The MCDM shows that plastic formwork is an ideal choice for sustainability among the alternatives considered.

Revealing the management of municipal textile waste and citizen practices: The case of Catalonia

Although the number of studies assessing the textile sector is increasing, only a few focus on its waste management. This study aims to shed light on current textile waste disposal practices and account for their environmental impact. To do so, a combination of citizen surveying and environmental quantitative tools, such as material flow analysis and life cycle assessment, are used to assess municipal textile waste in Catalonia in 2020. The results show that only approximately 10 % of municipal textile waste is separately collected, while 90 % is landfilled/incinerated. Of the 10 % of textiles collected separately, almost 40 % are prepared for reuse and recycled in Catalonia and Spain, approximately 40 % are exported for reuse and recycling in Asia, Africa and the rest of Europe, and the remaining 20 % are incinerated or landfilled, stocked or treated as improper waste. The carbon footprint generated by 1 t of textile waste managed by unseparated collection is 353 kg CO2 eq, which almost double that of 1 t of textile waste collected separately: 207 kg CO2 eq. The results also show that the emissions of textiles collected separately could be considerably reduced by minimizing their exports. The conclusions indicate that a proper course of action includes raising awareness about textile waste management and secondhand buying habits among citizens while investing in better sorting and local recycling technologies to reduce exports. Identifying the existing limitations to creating a local reuse and recycling textile sector is crucial to reduce its carbon footprint.