Lichen Conservation Research Articles

Cliffs support lichen communities unique from nearby forests

Cliffs support rare, endemic, and glacial relict vegetation that may differ from vegetation in surrounding forests. Yet, cliffs are difficult to sample, and rock-dwelling lichens can be challenging to identify; therefore, cliff lichens are often excluded from biodiversity studies. This omission creates fundamental gaps in our understanding of cliff lichens that lead to underestimation of overall community diversity. This study addresses one such gap by asking a basic question: do lichen communities on cliffs differ from rock-dwelling lichen communities in forests? To answer this question, we compared lichen communities from three cliffs in the Linville Gorge (North Carolina, USA; 369 m2 of cliff face surveyed) to rock and soil-dwelling lichen communities in forested plots across the same region (Southern Appalachian Mountains, USA, Alabama to North Carolina; 198 1-hectare forested plots). Forest plots were further divided into three groups based on elevation, proximity to Linville Gorge cliffs, and location within the state of North Carolina. A total of 225 rock or soil-dwelling lichen species were found in forest plots throughout the study area, while 104 species were found on cliffs. Two rare cliff-specialist species, Canoparmelia alabamensis, and Chrysothrix susquehannensis, were locally abundant on the studied cliffs but absent from surrounding forests. Our results show that cliffs support 20% of regional rock-dwelling lichen diversity, and that these cliff communities are distinct from those in forests. The high diversity, occurrence of unique species, and presence of rare lichens on cliffs indicate that cliff lichens should be included in biodiversity inventories and stewardship plans. To support this inclusion, we provide the first checklist for the lichens of Linville Gorge. Checklists like this one, including both cliff and non-cliff lichens, provide data on regional diversity and rarity that inform lichen conservation and rock climbing management.

Laboratory and field measurements of water relations, photosynthetic parameters, and hydration traits in macrolichens in a tropical lower montane rainforest in Thailand.

Ecophysiological studies of lichens in tropical Asia are rare, and additional studies can increase the understanding of lichen life in this region. The main aim of this study was to observe the relationships between water availability and photosynthetic parameters, as well as hydration trait parameters, in macrolichens during the rainy and dry seasons in a tropical forest. A total of 11 lichen species growing in a lower montane rainforest in Thailand were collected and studied. The results clearly showed that the specific thallus mass (STM), net photosynthetic rate (Pn), the potential quantum yield of primary photochemistry (Fv/Fm), chlorophyll content, and carotenoid content of almost all lichens were lower in the dry season than in the rainy season. Field measurements in the dry season revealed that only the foliose chlorolichen Parmotrema tinctorum was metabolically active and exhibited slight carbon assimilation. In the rainy season, all lichens started their photosynthesis in the early morning, reached maximal values, declined, and ceased when the thalli desiccated. The photosynthetically active period of the lichens was approximately 2-3h in the morning, and the activities of the cyanolichens ended approximately 30min after the chlorolichens. The hydration trait parameters, including the STM, maximal water content (WCmax), and water holding capacity (WHC), were greater in the cyanolichens. In addition, the maximal Pn (Pnmax) and optimal water content (WCopt) for Pn were also greater in the cyanolichens, but the maximal Fv/Fm (Fv/Fmmax) was lower. The cyanolichens compensated for their inability to use humid air to restore photosynthesis by having higher water content and storage, higher photosynthetic rates, and longer photosynthetically active periods. This study provides additional insights into lichen ecophysiology in tropical forests that can be useful for lichen conservation.

Natura 2000 network enhances the protection of rare epiphytic lichens: evidence from forest sites of Central Italy

AbstractAlthough epiphytic lichens are widely adopted as environmental indicators, they are not yet included among the target species listed in Annex II of the Habitats Directive, to which the system of protected areas of the Natura 2000 network refers. In this work, we aim to test the effectiveness of this system, mainly designed for the conservation of other groups of species, in protecting lichen species richness. For this purpose, we considered a case study (Central Italy) with half of the territory included in protected areas. Statistical differences in species richness and lichen communities were tested between sites located in 16 Protected Areas (PA) and 11 Non-Protected Areas (NPA) using non-parametric tests, multi-response permutation procedures (MRPP), non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and Indicator Species Analysis (ISA). Despite the broad overlap between epiphytic lichen communities of NPAs and PAs and a similar number of total and common species, PAs contain a significantly higher number of nationally rare and extremely rare species, including cyanolichens. These results are also confirmed by the indicator analysis. Although the Natura 2000 network does not explicitly address the conservation of lichens, the protected areas in our study can play a role in protecting the diversity of epiphytic lichens, especially nationally rare and endangered species. However, the future inclusion of red-listed epiphytic lichens among the target species of Annex II of the Habitats Directive would be welcome to better protect these organisms on a European level.

Practical conservation action on a Critically Endangered lichen species

To save a species on the verge of extinction, an urgent practical conservation action was performed on the Critically Endangered lichen species Leptogium hibernicum in Norway. A transplantation experiment at two localities was carried out in close cooperation with the responsible authorities. An alarming problem for L. hibernicum is the imminent challenge of a habitat under threat. A parallel experiment with a comparable yet common species, Leptogium saturninum, was performed to exclude variables related to the experimental method. Four years after transplantation of lichen fragments, the rate of survival has levelled off to about 12% for L. hibernicum and 19% for L. saturninum. The decrease in surviving material is largest one year after transplantation, while the amount of surviving material stabilises over the following three years. Transplantation is here shown as a promising tool for the practical conservation of red-listed lichens.

Regionally Varying Habitat Relationships in Lichens: The Concept and Evidence with an Emphasis on North-Temperate Ecosystems.

Habitat ecology of lichens (lichen-forming fungi) involves diverse adaptations to stressful environments where lichens use specific habitat conditions. Field observations confirm that such habitat 'preferences' can vary significantly across species' distribution ranges, sometimes revealing abrupt changes over short distances. We critically review and generalize such empirical evidence as broad ecological patterns, link these with the likely physiological mechanisms and evolutionary processes involved, and outline the implications for lichen conservation. Non-replicated correlative studies remain only suggestive because the data are frequently compromised by sampling bias and pervasive random errors; further noise is related to unrecognized cryptic species. Replicated evidence exists for three macroecological patterns: (a) regional limiting factors excluding a species from a part of its microhabitat range in suboptimal areas; (b) microhabitat shifts to buffer regionally adverse macroclimates; (c) substrate suitability changed by the chemical environment, notably air pollution. All these appear to be primarily buffering physiological challenges of the adverse conditions at the macrohabitat scale or, in favorable environments, coping with competition or predation. The roles of plasticity, adaptation, dispersal, and population-level stochasticity remain to be studied. Although lichens can inhabit various novel microhabitats, there is no evidence for a related adaptive change. A precautionary approach to lichen conservation is to maintain long-term structural heterogeneity in lichen habitats, and consider lichen ecotypes as potential evolutionarily significant units and a bet-hedging strategy for addressing the climate change-related challenges to biodiversity.

Red List of lichenized fungi in Bulgaria

The first Red List assessment of lichenized fungi reported from Bulgaria is presented. The IUCN Red List criteria were applied to 138 species to assess their current extinction risk and to highlight the main threats for them. Our results revealed that six species are Regionally Extinct (RE), 23 species are Critically Endangered (CR), 20 species are Endangered (EN), 13 species are Vulnerable (VU), 11 species are Near Threatened (NT), 58 species are Least Concern (LC), and seven species are Data Deficient (DD). The most important floristic regions for lichen conservation are the Pirin Mts (26 species), the Balkan Range (25), the Rila Mts (25), the Rhodopes (20), Mt. Vitosha (16), Mt. Strandzha (16), and the Black Sea coast (15). The main threats are development of tourism and recreation activities that destroy habitats (60 species affected), air pollution (55), climate change (53), development of tourism and recreation areas (41), harvesting trees and other woody vegetation (unintentional effects) (27), ecosystem modifications that convert or degrade habitats (18), and development of housing and urban areas (14). The information provided in this Red List will assist to further develop the national conservation strategy for Bulgaria.

Short-Term Effects of Critical Metal Concentrations on Usnic Acid Production in Cladonia rangiferina

Cladonia rangiferina is a lichen that produces usnic acid, a selectively toxic biomolecule, allowing the lichen to protect itself from predators and regulate populations of microorganisms, other fungi, and animals in its vicinity. Unfortunately, metal pollution associated with human industrial activity has hindered C. rangiferina’s metabolism, as indicated by its decreasing population in areas with high metal concentrations. It was unclear whether C. rangiferina’s ability to produce usnic acid was also hindered in polluted environments and whether the type of metal pollutant led to different effects. A short-term experimental study was used to isolate the effects of concentrated copper, nickel, and zinc ions on this metabolic pathway. It was found that nickel (+2) does not significantly affect usnic acid production, whereas even small concentrations of copper (+2) dramatically reduce it. Meanwhile, the concentration of zinc (+2) seems to be negatively correlated with usnic acid production in the short term. This means that priority regions for C. rangiferina population restoration projects include areas with critically high concentrations of copper and zinc, but not nickel. Further research is needed to a) explain how usnic acid synthesis changed rapidly under varying copper conditions compared to zinc and b) identify changes to this molecule’s synthesis under a combination of metal stresses. This study could clarify the metabolic pathway of usnic acid production and refine plans for artificial dispersal (a lichen conservation method).

A checklist of lichens of Assam, India

, Lichens not only play a major role in plant succession as pioneer species but also provide many ecosystem services. Various anthropogenic activities like habitat destruction, air pollution and over exploitation of lichens for economic uses seem to be the main threats for loss of lichen diversity. Hence, for in situ conservation of lichens, it is a prioritised need to document lichen species of a locality. Lichens of Assam are being extensively studied from a taxonomic point of view in recent years. An accurate and updated checklist of lichens is not available so far. Here we expand the knowledge of the lichen of Assam by critically surveyed the literatures and prepared an updated list of total 657 species of Assam.

Silvicultural strategies for lichen conservation: Smaller gaps and shorter distances to edges promote recolonization

AbstractConservation of epiphytic lichens in managed forest landscapes relies on understanding limitations to their dispersal and establishment after harvesting. A hot spot for cephalo‐ and cyanolichens, the Kispiox inland temperate rainforest of British Columbia, Canada, is an example of where forest managers seek silviculture options that allow for forest harvesting to continue, while also conserving threatened species. To characterize colonization of these lichens (including the nationally threatened Nephroma occultum and Lobaria retigera), we quantified thalli on 25‐year‐old regenerating spruce trees at varying distances from forest edges in logged openings of different sizes surrounded by mature (160 years) or old‐growth (≥350 years) forest. Lichen colonization 25 years after logging was influenced by distance from the forest edge, surrounding forest age, and opening size. Total mean colonization and number of species per three branches were 81 thalli and 8 species at the forest edge, declining to 18 and 4, respectively, approximately 50 m into the openings. Colonization of most species reached minimum levels within 80 m. Nationally threatened species and old‐forest associates had higher abundances and longer colonization distances in openings surrounded by old‐growth forests; whereas widespread species had greater colonization when surrounded by mature forests. Logged gaps <0.6 ha promoted higher and more diverse lichen colonization than clearcuts (>3.8 ha). This study demonstrates that forest managers should consider the spatial patterning of harvesting, with smaller openings and shorter distances between edges (likely in tandem with higher levels of retention) in forests rich in epiphytic lichens to facilitate their recolonization and conservation.

Can epiphytic lichens of remnant Atlantic oakwood trees in a planted ancient woodland site survive early stages of woodland restoration?

Key messageEpiphytic lichens of remnant Atlantic oakwood trees, enclosed within a recently planted conifer matrix, show ability to survive early stages of woodland restoration (conifer removal).ContextAtlantic oakwood, ancient semi-natural woodland (ASNW), supports important epiphytic lichens. Fragmented ASNW, historically in-filled with conifers, are now being restored to reflect ASNW tree and ground flora character. Concerns exist that sudden and total removal of the conifer matrix will be detrimental to the epiphyte diversity of remnant trees retained within the former plantation.AimsHere, we ask whether an unintended consequence of habitat restoration is the loss of epiphyte populations on remnant trees.MethodsDynamics of ground flora development were studied at one 50-ha site on the west coast of Scotland using indicator species occurrence and species traits. Change in cover of lichen species was determined and lichen vitality was assessed in two Lobaria species using chlorophyll fluorescence as a proxy. Assessments pre-, post- and nine years after conifer removal were made in plantation areas (containing remnant oak trees) and ASNW areas.ResultsRe-vegetation of the ground flora was predominantly by ASNW vegetation. Species richness and occurrence of native woodland indicator species increased and the community showed stronger competitor traits. Lichen vitality was initially reduced but recovered. Tests showed change in the abundance of key lichen species and lichen community diversity was non-significant despite the loss of four lichen species on remnant trees.ConclusionGround flora dynamics indicate site recovery was underway within eight years of restoration activities and epiphytic lichens although variable in response were in this study largely unaffected, this restoration approach could be appropriate for other Atlantic oakwoods where lichen conservation is an objective.

Integrating dark diversity and functional traits to enhance nature conservation of epiphytic lichens: a case study from Northern Italy

Mountains provide a timely opportunity to examine the potential effects of climate change on biodiversity. However, nature conservation in mountain areas have mostly focused on the observed part of biodiversity, not revealing the suitable but absent species—dark diversity. Dark diversity allows calculating the community completeness, indicating whether sites should be restored (low completeness) or conserved (high completeness). Functional traits can be added, showing what groups should be focused on. Here we assessed changes in taxonomic and functional observed and dark diversity of epiphytic lichens along elevational transects in Northern Italy spruce forests. Eight transects (900–1900 m) were selected, resulting in 48 plots and 240 trees, in which lichens were sampled using four quadrats per tree (10 × 50 cm). Dark diversity was estimated based on species co-occurrence (Beals index). We considered functional traits related to growth form, photobiont type and reproductive strategy. Linear and Dirichlet regressions were used to examine changes in taxonomic metrics and functional traits along gradient. Our results showed that all taxonomic metrics increased with elevation and functional traits of lichens differed between observed and dark diversity. At low elevations, due to low completeness and harsh conditions, both restoration and conservation activities are needed, focusing on crustose species. Towards high elevations, conservation is more important to prevent species pool losses, focusing on macrolichens, lichens with Trentepohlia and sexual reproduction. Finally, dark diversity and functional traits provide a novel tool to enhance nature conservation, indicating particular threatened groups, creating windows of opportunities to protect species from both local and regional extinctions.

Biodiversity and conservation of terricolous lichens and bryophytes in continental lowlands of northern Italy: the role of different dry habitat types

In dry habitats of European lowlands terricolous lichens and bryophytes are almost neglected in conservation practises, even if they may strongly contribute to biodiversity. This study aims at (a) testing the role of heathlands, acidic and calcareous dry grasslands for lichen and bryophyte diversity and conservation in lowland areas of northern Italy characterized by high human impact and habitat fragmentation; (b) detecting the effect of environmental drivers and vegetation dynamics on species richness and composition. Lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, and environmental variables were recorded in 287 circular plots for 75 sites. Our results indicate that heathlands, acidic and calcareous dry grasslands host peculiar terricolous lichen and bryophyte communities that include several species of conservation concern. Thus, each habitat provides a complementary contribution to lichen and bryophyte diversity in continental lowland landscapes. Furthermore, in each habitat different factors drive species richness and composition with contrasting patterns between lichens and bryophytes. In terms of conservation, our results indicate that management of lowland dry habitats should act at both local and landscape scales. At local scale, vegetation dynamics should be controlled in order to avoid biodiversity loss due to vegetation dynamics and wood encroachment. At the landscape scale, patches of all the three habitats should be maintained to maximize regional diversity.

Using lichen communities as indicators of forest stand age and conservation value

Evaluating the conservation value of ecological communities is critical for forest management but can be challenging because it is difficult to survey all taxonomic groups of conservation concern. Lichens have long been used as indicators of late successional habitats with particularly high conservation value because lichens are ubiquitous, sensitive to fine-scale environmental variation, and some species require old substrates. However, the efficacy of such lichen indicator systems has rarely been tested beyond narrow geographic areas, and their reliability has not been established with well-replicated quantitative research. Here, we develop a continuous lichen conservation index representing epiphytic macrolichen species affinities for late successional forests in the Pacific Northwest, USA. This index classifies species based on expert field experience and is similar to the “coefficient of conservatism” that is widely used for evaluating vascular plant communities in the central and eastern USA. We then use a large forest survey dataset to test whether the community-level lichen conservation index is related to forest stand age. We find that the lichen conservation index has a positive, linear relationship with forest stand age. In contrast, lichen species richness has only a weak, unimodal relationship with forest stand age, and a binary indicator approach (where species are assigned as either old growth forest indicators or not) has a substantially weaker relationship with forest stand age than the continuous lichen conservation index. Our findings highlight that lichen communities can be useful indicators of late successional habitats of conservation concern at a regional scale. Quantitative lichen indicator systems provide unique information about habitat conservation value that is not captured by traditional community metrics such as lichen species richness. More broadly, indicator systems based on expert experience can have strong biological relevance.

Non-forested vs forest environments: The effect of habitat conditions on host tree parameters and the occurrence of associated epiphytic lichens

The study compares the epiphytic lichen communities of two different ecological systems of northern Poland, a non-forested area and a natural lowland deciduous forest corresponding to the potential vegetation flora of a large part of Central Europe, in relation to the same tree species. The impact of habitat type and tree species on individual tree properties and the association between tree size, bark pH, conductivity, water-holding capacity, bark splitting, light intensity at tree trunks and the composition of lichens were analysed. Three sets of lichens were identified: confined to non-forested areas (40 species), confined to forests (61 species), and non-specific mutual species (53 species). The results indicate that most species demonstrate specificity to habitat type rather than to tree species. Factors related to tree species and bark properties gain in importance at the level of a specific habitat. Bark pH and water-holding capacity are decisive factors for lichen occurrence in both habitat types; additionally, in forests, tree diameter is important. The paper provides potentially useful ecological data for campaigns aimed at lichen conservation and at shaping the environment with concern for biodiversity. • Epiphytic lichens are more strongly habitat-specific than host tree-specific. • Factors related to tree bark gain in importance at the specific habitat level. • Water-holding capacity and pH of bark are decisive factors for epiphytic lichens.

Data on epiphytic lichens and their host-trees in relation to non-forested area and natural deciduous lowland forest

The article includes raw and analyzed data directly related to the research paper entitled “Non-forested vs forest environments: the effect of habitat conditions on host tree parameters and the occurrence of associated epiphytic lichens” [1]. These data concern the relationships between the composition of lichen communities and host-tree parameters in non-forested area and a natural lowland deciduous forest in northern Poland. Lichen species confined to non-forested area, associated with forest habitat, and non-specific mutual species occurring in both habitat types are listed together with their host-tree preferences. Data on the phenotypic variability of five common and native to Central Europe tree species in relation to the habitat type are provided. Data that concerns tree parameters are analyzed by the mixed model ANOVA and Principal Component Analysis. Additionally, sample rarefactions and indices of potential lichen species richness for both habitat types are included. Presented data could be used in further studies to compare epiphytic community structure and may be support for campaigns aimed at lichen conservation and at shaping the environment with concern for biodiversity.

Production of Bioactive Lichen Compounds by Alginate-Immobilized Bionts Isolated from Cladonia verticillaris: An in Vitro Study

Bionts isolated from thalli of Cladonia verticillaris, immobilized in calcium alginate, produce two depsidones, fumarprotocetraric and protocetraric acids, and the depside atranorin, that exhibit antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Organic lichen extract (acetone/ether/chloroform) shows the highest antimicrobial activity due to a possible synergism between these substances. Antioxidant capacity of soluble metabolites secreted from the immobilisates to the bath medium of incubation during the first 12 days of immobilization has been found (˃80% oxidation inhibition). The concentration of soluble phenolic substances depends on the immobilization time (during 32 days), exogenous supply of acetate (1.0m mM sodium or calcium acetate) and on the type of isolated biont (phycobionts, mycobionts, whole thallus or immobilized phycobionts co-incubated with the mycobionts ones).
 
 The role of phycobionts in phenol production has been interpreted as a possible modification of the polymalonyl pathway; for example, atranorin is actively produced and secreted during immobilization while it is not detected in thallus in natura. Co-incubated bionts secrete higher amounts of atranorin to the media during the first 12 days of immobilization. Immobilization of isolated bionts could be used as a biotechnological technique to obtain a potential source of biological active compounds.
 
 On the other hand, the physiological state detected of C. verticillaris in the Cerrado is much better for experimentation than that of the specimens collected in Caatinga since, in this case, the thalli showed the fragility that the extreme environmental conditions of the semi-arid region of NE Brazil impose on this lichen species. To date, no priority has been defined for lichen conservation in Brazilian ecosystems. It is therefore suggested that it imust important to include lichen ecophysiology studies in public conservation policies.

Lichen conservation in North America: a review of current practices and research in Canada and the United States

Lichens are diverse symbiotic organisms that contribute essential functions to ecosystems worldwide. Generally, lichens are under-represented in conservation assessments and implementation when compared to other groups of organisms (e.g., plants and vertebrates). However, some progress has been made towards better conservation of lichens in recent decades. Here we review the current state of lichen conservation in Canada and the United States, a region that includes nearly 6000 species of lichens. Through detailed case studies, we document threats and declines of diversity and abundance, then review the legal frameworks that exist to protect lichens at different spatial scales in both countries. We highlight progress in effectively using ‘Big Data’ to inform conservation, monitoring rare and endangered species, expanding the professional capacity of lichenologists, and building interdisciplinary networks between scientists and the broader community of conservation and resource managers. Moving forward, there are clear actions that must be taken to accelerate lichen conservation.

Epiphytic lichens of the sacred natural site “Bosco di Sant’Antonio” (Majella National Park – Abruzzo)

Sacred Natural Sites are relevant for biodiversity conservation, as in the case of forest sites that, across centuries, developed old growth structures and are now crucial for the conservation of epiphytic lichens and other specialized forest organisms. In this study, we investigated the epiphytic lichen flora of a small forest patch included in the Majella National Park (Abruzzo), whose old growth features and naturalness reflect its long lasting spiritual role that perfectly fits with the concept of Sacred Natural Site. Results revealed that the “Bosco di Sant’Antonio” hosts a rich and interesting epiphytic lichen flora, thus indicating the potential of this Sacred Natural Site for lichen conservation. Fifty-six species were found including two species newly recorded in Abruzzo, two red-listed species, and the sensitive species Lobariapulmonaria. This study corroborates the hypothesis that sacred forest sites are relevant for the conservation of specialized epiphytic lichens. In particular, in the Italian forest landscape where old-growth stands are practically absent, sacred forest sites may provide unique old-growth structures and buffer anthropogenic disturbance.

Strong influence of landscape structure on hair lichens in boreal forest canopies

This study examines how island size, isolation, and orientation influence epiphytic hair lichens in old-growth boreal spruce forests within a naturally heterogeneous landscape with approximately 1000 forest islands distributed in open wetland matrix. Forest structure, length of Alectoria sarmentosa (Ach.) Ach., Bryoria spp., and Usnea spp., and mass of Alectoria in the lower canopy (0–5 m) of Picea abies (L.) Karst. were quantified in 30 islands (0.11–10.9 ha). Length and mass of Alectoria were also studied in 25 edges with different orientation and fetch (wind exposure). Island area had a strong positive effect on length of Alectoria but a minor effect on Bryoria and Usnea. Edge orientation influenced length and mass of Alectoria, with the strongest reduction in wind-exposed western edges, whereas fetch size had no effect. Edge influence on microclimate drives hair lichen response to landscape configuration. The gradient from Bryoria in small islands to Alectoria in large islands is caused by the same mechanisms that influence vertical canopy gradients in large homogeneous stands, with Bryoria in the upper canopy and Alectoria in the lower canopy. Genus-specific, sun-screening pigments contribute to this niche differentiation, but thallus fragmentation by wind and water storage are also important. Our findings imply that lichen conservation must consider the spatial structure of the landscape.

Trade and legislation: consequences for the conservation of lichens in the Nepal Himalaya

Lichen harvest and trade are closely associated with the livelihood of most of the rural people in Western Nepal. The present study investigates the commercial collection of lichens, quantifies the traded volume and relates it to a market scenario, and discusses conservation measures in relation to established legal practices in Nepal. Data on lichen trade and revenue generated for the 12 years (2000–2011) were collected and analyzed from 74 districts of Nepal. Voucher specimens were deposited at TUCH (Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium) in Nepal. The lichens collected in West Nepal are mainly used in international trade, while those in East Nepal are used locally for food. A total of 20 commercially important species of lichens were identified from five trade centers and one local market. During 2000–2011, Nepal legally exported 2020 tons of lichens and collected NRs 25,293,305 (USD 240,000). The average annual quantity of turnover was 168 tons, though it is estimated that much was exported illegally. The hill districts in Nepal, which traded 1774 tons, were more important for the collection of commercial lichen species than the Mountainous and inner-Tarai districts, which traded 167 and 108 tons, respectively. Through the Forest Act, Forest Regulations and its amendment in 2011, the collection of lichens for harvest, trade and export in any crude or processed form was banned. However, the legislation lacks an effective implementation strategy, and sustainable harvest of lichen resources based on scientific data would better serve local livelihood and lichen conservation in Nepal.