Liberation War Research Articles

From Displacement to Marginalization: Tonga-Goba Wartime Experiences in the Mid-Zambezi Valley, 1976–1979

In the 1970s, the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) opened its bases in the mid-Zambezi Valley, at Paradise and Mayovhe, under Chief Mola’s territory. This move by ZIPRA was motivated by a variety of reasons. The most important fact was that the Tonga-Goba people of this region were ready to support the war because they wanted to regain control of the riverscape from which they were displaced by the colonial state during the late 1950s when the Kariba dam was constructed. This paper examines how the colonial displacements of the Tonga-Goba people, their marginalization as well as the colonial regime’s “broken promise” all shaped their participation in the Zimbabwe War of Liberation in the 1970s. To explore this history of war from below, our study builds largely from the local Tonga-Goba narratives.

Nature conservation, borders and violence along the Chobe River between Botswana and Namibia in the twentieth and twenty-first century

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the intricate dynamics of the Chobe River borderland between Namibia and Botswana, a border marked by its dual identity as both a national boundary and a conservation frontier. The Chobe River border has witnessed transformations from a colonial-era demarcation to an area drawn into liberation wars and, subsequently, a hotspot for militarized conservation. Drawing from archival material and interviews in the region this study illuminates the entanglement of nature conservation and violence in the region, exemplified by the harmful consequences of safeguarding wildlife along the border. We argue that the militarized role of the Botswana Defence Force (BDF) in protecting high-value wildlife and conservation zones intersects with the history of the Kasikili/Sedudu border dispute and the establishment of the Chobe National Park as well as with broader state imperatives, including security, finance, and legitimation. We develop this argument through a comprehensive investigation into historical debates over the border’s position, conflicts related to land use, and the BDF’s evolving role in green violence.

Tracing Memory, Trauma, and Childhood: The Bangladesh Liberation War in Sorayya Khan’s Noor

This article addresses the representation of childhood memory and trauma in Sorayya Khan’s novel Noor (2003) against the backdrop of the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. It discusses how personal recollections of public events contribute to the collective memory of the nation-state. The exploration includes the intergenerational transmission of trauma, employing Marianne Hirsch’s concept of ‘Postmemory,’ which describes how traumatic experiences are passed down, particularly in the context of the Holocaust. This framework has been contextualized within the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War and its aftermath on children, carrying the memories of war trauma forward, as illustrated in the novel through Noor and Sajida’s experiences. Through a close reading of the novel, this article aims to extricate the underlying patterns of childhood war memory and personal experiences that often get subsided in historical representations and emphasizes the pertinence of reading a representational narrative of the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War even after half a century.

Nexus between India and Bangladesh in the Liberation War of Bangladesh: Consequences of International Agreement

The support of India and the Soviet Union was very important in the liberation war of Bangladesh, 1971 and the then East Pakistan witnessed a brutal struggle for independence. Amidst the liberation war a triangle web of international alliances and strategic moves attempt to create hegemony in this region. However, it is very urgent to understand the background of why and how India was active, and its attitude was positive in the liberation war of Bangladesh. The present study will investigate these research questions through secondary sources. This present study is qualitative in nature and historical events were explained leveraging the decision making and games theory as theoretical framework. The historic Indo-Soviet Treaty had an immediate impact on the decisive battle between India and Pakistan in the eastern war theater. This paper deals with the explanation for establishing a treaty that was signed between the Soviet Union and India. A focus has been made on the reasons for India's diplomatic role in the liberation war of Bangladesh. This paper also highlights that the friendship treaty between these two countries was not signed to help and aid East Pakistan, but its background prevailed in the 1954 SEATO treaty and aftermath in 1955 Bandung conference that made close friendship ties with USSR and India. Geopolitics, history and international politics played a vital role in signing the treaty that created a nexus between India and Bangladesh during liberation war of Bangladesh.

India-Bangladesh Conflict: An Overview

Abstract: The India-Bangladesh conflict primarily revolves around historical, territorial and resource-related disputes that have shaped the bilateral relationship between the two neighbouring South Asian countries. Emerging from the Partition of British India in 1947 and the subsequent creation of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), tensions escalated during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, which resulted in Bangladesh's independence with Indian military support. Key areas of conflict have included the demarcation of borders, particularly over the disputed enclaves, the maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal, and the sharing of transboundary river waters, such as the Ganges and the Teesta. While the Land Boundary Agreement of 2015 resolved several border issues, the water-sharing disputes remain unresolved, particularly concerning the Teesta River, which is critical to Bangladesh’s agriculture. Additionally, non-traditional security concerns such as illegal migration, cross-border insurgencies, and trafficking continue to challenge bilateral relations. Nevertheless, India and Bangladesh have strengthened their cooperation in recent years, particularly in trade, energy and regional security, while both countries seek to balance their national interests within a framework of diplomacy and economic interdependence. This overview highlights that while conflict persists in certain areas, India and Bangladesh have made significant strides in resolving disputes and fostering collaboration, although challenges remain in ensuring equitable resource distribution and addressing mutual security concerns.

WOMEN'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIBERATION OF KOSOVO IN 1998-1999

The work brings to mind the years 1998 and 1999 in Kosovo, which brought a lot of suffering. Serbian forces carried out massacres, murders, raped women and men and destroyed almost the entire country. Approximately 90% of Kosovo Albanians were forcibly expelled from their homes. The paper brings to attention a contemporary issue, in these times of horror that are being repeated in the same form again in Ukraine and Palestine, groups of women and girls who are raped, massacred and killed, help displaced people with food, support, medical care, housing and education. Over 20 thousand Albanian women and girls were raped by the Serbs during the years 1998-1999. The harrowing narratives of Kosovar women and girls reveal the barbaric violence that the Serbs have inflicted on women, girls, mothers, children and men, who became victims of rape during the war. The role of women in Kosovo, in this war, was as important as the role of women for the creation of a new life. This research is based on real statistics of the testimonies of women and girls during the war in Kosovo. According to the records, women and girls got knowledge about weapons and ammunition and became part of the national liberation struggle. The women became the informers of the massacres that the Serbs would do in the towns and villages, preventing them. The lack of an accurate number of women participating in the war for the liberation of Kosovo means that they do not take their rightful place in this war. They deserve recognition. According to the data, there was a considerable number of women in the guerrilla BIA. Women had a key role in the liberation of the country, they must have been forgotten by the free state of Kosovo. The contribution and sacrifices of women during the war in Kosovo were unparalleled, they aimed at the war and the liberation of the Albanian lands. In many studies, this role of women in liberation has not been identified, due attention has not been paid to it, and this is related to the existence of patriarchal norms of Kosovar society. The exclusion of women from this active contribution is related to these norms and this study makes an effort to bring this contribution of women to the liberation war of Kosovo. The study brings to attention that the contribution of women during the war should be documented and be part of our oral and written history, whose contribution has been little described.

Oleksandr Ivakhnenko and Oleksandr Danchenko are the Illustrators of Oleksandr Dovzhenko

The article is dedicated to the illustrations of the prominent Ukrainian graphic artists Oleksandr Ivakhnenko and Oleksandr Danchenko for the prose of Oleksandr Dovzhenko, as well as the issue of the existence of auto-illustrations by the filmmaker himself. Oleksandr Dovzhenko (also known as Alexander Dovzhenko) is not only a world-renowned filmmaker but also an outstanding artist – a painter and a graphic artist. Besides his painted portraits and thematic paintings, graphic caricatures, cartoons, and portraits, his drawings for films («Arsenal» – late 1920s, «Shchors» – late 1930s, «Michurin» – 1940s, «Poem on the Sea» – 1950s) are well-known. However, the topic “O. Dovzhenko is the Illustrator of His Own Literary Works” has hardly been explored by researchers of the master’s heritage, although the drawing Little Sashko which is both a portrait of the author in childhood and an image of the hero of the film story The Enchanted Desna, inspires further archival search in the filmmaker archives. V. Yevdokymenko (1967), M. Kompanets (1973), V. Yefymenko (1976), T. Kushch (2006), and others are among the illustrators of O. Dovzhenko’s prose. Oleksandr Ivakhnenko’s etchings for the film story The Enchanted Desna (1975–1976) have become a notable phenomenon in Ukrainian graphics during the period of the so-called “silent protest” (the 1970s–1980s). Having chosen a favourite graphic technique of that period, the artist, however, remained indifferent to the extremely popular “de-booking” technique of the 1970s–1980s. The Enchanted Desna is a book that is well-thought-out and coherent. In terms of space, the illustrations occupy as much space on the page as the printed text, and in shape, they are very elongated horizontally, thus creating a kind of pictorial “film strip”, logical and natural for a “film story”. Oleksandr Danchenko’s cycle of etchings for the collection of stories Unforgettable. 1941–1943 (1980) is another example. The artist has addressed frequently the theme of World War II tragedy (Koriukivka. March 1, 1943 (1971), Adzhimushkai (1985), a cycle of illustrations for O. Honchar’s novel Standard-Bearers (1989)). At the same time, his illustrations for O. Dovzhenko’s stories are internally connected with O. Danchenko’s series The Liberation War of the Ukrainian People of 1648–1654 (1954) and Chornobyl (1988–1990), as well as with the etchings for Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy (1990–1992). All these works are based on the combination of documentary with epic, where elevation and poeticism arise precisely as a result of such a combination. The construction of the illustration as a frame, sometimes even a freeze-frame, is an artistic tribute to the creativity of the outstanding filmmaker.

THE PLIGHT OF BANGLADESHI UNDERTRIAL PRISONERS IN INDIA: A CRISIS OF JUSTICE

The largest group of foreign national inmates in India is Bangladeshi inmates. Bangladeshis made up 68.8% of the 5,168 foreign national prisoners housed at the end of 2018, according to data provided by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB). It is important to consider the high number of prisoners from Bangladesh in India when considering their shared history, as well as the frequent movements and social interactions across their porous borders. Following India's partition in 1947 and again during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, there was a significant migration from Bangladesh to India. The Assam Accord was signed in 1985 as a result of the significant outcry over the flood of Bangladeshi migrants in Assam. In the 2005 case of Sarbananda Sonowal v. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India invalidated the Illegal Migrants (Determination of Tribunal) Act, 1983, which established the processes for identifying and removing illegal migrants from Assam. The court ruled that the Act violated Articles 14 and 355 of the Indian Constitution. The publication of the National Register of Citizens (NRC) in Assam on August 31, 2019, which excluded 1.9 million people as citizens of India, has brought the topic of detention and deportation of illegal migrants back into the public eye. This research paper is an attempt to examine the reasons behind the imprisonment of Bangladeshi undertrial prisoners in India particularly in some cases even if they have completed more than half of the sentences provided under the law for those offences and to find out some remedial measures for those who for some reason have came to India and thereafter, have never been able to return to their country of origin.

‘A Necessary Evil?’: (Southern) Rhodesia’s Diplomatic and Economic Relations with Zambia, 1963 to 1973

This paper historicises the diplomatic and economic relations of Southern Rhodesia and Zambia between 1963 and 1973. While there has been comprehensive scholarship delineating the relations between, for instance, Zimbabwe and South Africa over the years, neighbouring Zambia has hitherto been given little attention by historians. Where the relations of Zimbabwe and Zambia have been examined, this has been in the context of political and military connections between Zambia’s United National Independence Party-led government and the Zimbabwean liberation movements the Zimbabwe African National Union and the Zimbabwe African People’s Union. In terms of Zambia–Rhodesia economic and diplomatic interactions, much has been written on how Zambia fared against the backdrop of Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence and the sanctions that followed, from the point of view of Zambia. We shift the focus because there is very little scholarship on the Rhodesian point of view, particularly its relations with Zambia in the period covered by this article. Using archival sources, newspapers and secondary literature, we contend that until the closure of the Rhodesia–Zambia border, the connection between the two countries was characterised by a cautious partnership marked by both covert and overt hostility, which escalated to an outright breakdown of border relations in 1973. Essentially, economic diplomacy became a critical tool deployed by Rhodesia towards Zambia to survive times of financial challenges precipitated by sanctions imposed by Britain and the United Nations, as well as the context of wars of liberation waged in Rhodesia since 1966.

The “Leftist” Tendency of Upgrading Class Status during the Land Reform in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region during the War of Liberation: A Case Study of Jia County in the Suide District

Abstract Following the National Land Conference of 1947, land reform that aimed at achieving “land to the tiller” commenced across the liberated areas. Classifying social classes was a prerequisite for carrying out this reform. However, in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region, a widespread “leftist” tendency to upgrade class statuses occurred during the classification. This was not only due to deviations in policy implementation by grassroots cadres and the masses but also related to the complexities inherent in class classification itself. Additionally, it was a desperate measure on the part of the peasants of Northern Shaanxi, who, facing frequent natural disasters and general food shortages, actively sought to reclassify households with surplus grain in order to secure their own food resources.

Algerian cinema and its accompaniment of the war of national liberation...The film "The Battle of Algiers" as a model

Algerian cinema and its accompaniment of the war of national liberation...The film "The Battle of Algiers" as a model

The religious dimension of Russia's war against Ukraine: the context of national security

The author highlights the current problems of the Ukrainian state in the context of Russia's large-scale war against Ukraine. The importance of studying the religious factor and its impact on Ukraine's national security is substantiated. It is shown how, with the “spiritual” support of its original assistant, the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC), the Moscow Patriarchate in Ukraine in the guise of the so-called Ukrainian Orthodox Church (UOC-MP) has been actively proclaiming the “gathering of Russian lands” for decades. This “hostile tandem” has been building a “Russian world” on Ukrainian territory with intolerance to everything Ukrainian, pursuing a collaborationist policy in Ukraine, lobbying for Russia's interests, and becoming an important tool for influencing the minds of a large number of people. With the restoration of the independence of the Ukrainian state, Orthodoxy was supposed to become a consolidating factor in the creation of the Ukrainian nation. Instead, for decades, the UOC-MP has been constantly deconsolidating Ukrainian society, sowing church discord, and discrediting Ukraine's political and spiritual leadership in the international arena. Such activities have resulted in not only the territorial but also the spiritual occupation of our country. It is concluded that the concept of the “Russian world”, cultivated for years in Ukraine by the Kremlin through its “Orthodox” structures of the Russian Orthodox Church and the UOC-MP, was mainly the basis for the invasion of Ukrainian territories by the occupiers, which later escalated into a large-scale national liberation war in 2022. The study used data from sociological services, official documents of church institutions, and analyzed Ukrainian legislation on related issues. Certain provisions of the study can be used to further analyze the activities and spheres of influence of the Moscow Patriarchate in order to prevent similar tragedies in the future.

The Good Muslim as a Quest for Jus Post Bellum in a Nation in Transition

This paper explores the search for justice after the war in Tahmima Anam’s novel, The Good Muslim. The novel deals with the aftermath of ‘the Liberation War of Bangladesh’ in the 1970s and early 80s, when the country was gravely suffering from famine, consecutive murders of their prominent leaders, political upheavals, natural disasters, and paralyzed democratic norms in the hands of a Dictator Hussein Muhammad Ershad. In such a context, Maya Haque, the protagonist of the novel, and an erstwhile freedom fighter continues writing and fighting for modern education, justice for the rape victims of the war, and democracy in the country. The study analyzes narrative data from the novel to see how the female characters struggle for justice after the war. For this purpose, it uses Larry May’s insights on ‘jus post bellum’. May has proposed six criteria for post-war justice, including ‘reconciliation’ and ‘rebuilding’, to maintain lasting peace in a post-war society. The novel entails these conditions and brings transitional justice to the fore of discourse through the literary creation. The paper claims that the protagonist is not only raising her voice for certain characters in the novel, rather she is constantly contributing to the broader issue of jus post bellum, which has been the most important, yet the most ‘neglected’ topic in just war theories. The article concludes with the idea that a fictitious work like The Good Muslim can be a good voice for the voiceless and a loud and clear advocacy for justice after the war. It can contribute to maintaining law and order and build up lasting peace preventing further violence in a postwar society.

On the origins of the Netherlands’ States General

ABSTRACT The States General of the Netherlands took the lead in the revolt against the King of Spain, Philip II, in the sixteenth century and it ruled as a sovereign assembly until the end of the eighteenth century. It emerged relatively late, as compared to the French model dating from 1302. It is questionable if there was such a thing as a first meeting in the Netherlands. Current scholarship agrees on the meetings in January to March 1464 in Bruges, Ghent and Lille, summoned by Duke Philip with a very different purpose than the one which came to dominate the discussions. While it is generally assumed that the initiative came from the Duke, after his son had tried to usurp it, this article argues for more gradual processes. First, the meetings of 1464 and 1465 were successful thanks to decades of intense joint meetings between four and six of the core principalities concerning primarily economic purposes. Second, their cohesion facilitated their crucial role during successive dynastic crises from 1477 to 1492, when fundamental principles of constitutional representation were formulated. These would enable the States General to organize the war of liberation from Spanish oppression.

From Politicization to Vigilance: The Post-war Legacies of Wartime Victimization

Following regime change, how does wartime victimization shape political attitudes and participation in the long run? I argue that it increases post-war political vigilance: greater sensitivity to illiberal politics and poor governance, but with dampened effects on participation under authoritarianism due to greater fear of harm. I examine Protected Villages (PVs) in the Zimbabwe Liberation War (1972–1979). PVs, a Rhodesian counterinsurgency strategy, was a large-scale and violent resettlement program that intensified politics’ role in civilian lives. I map PV-affected areas within pre-war and current-day administrative divisions, and estimate a difference-in-discontinuities regression to identify PVs’ long-run effects. PV-affected areas report greater sensitivity to the country’s illiberal politics and are more critical of poor government performance today. Contrary to existing literature however, I find no evidence of increased political participation and pro-social behavior in the long run, nor hardened support for the ruling party—whom these areas had once supported during war.

Redrawing Gender Boundaries in Selina Hossain’s River of My Blood

This study seeks to examine and reinterpret gender roles shown in the book River of My Blood (Hangor Nodi Grenade, titled in Bangla) by Selina Hossain. Hossain's (2016) work is a compelling story that questions conventional standards by emphasizing the changing experiences of its three central female characters, Boori, Nita, and Ramija. These people live in a society allegedly to be puritanical and misogynistic, in which women have little independence. They are faced with thoughtful questions on the political and sexual persecution of women as well as the differences in political processes. The book, set against the backdrop of the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, offers an authentic and detailed account of a significant historical event. Through the characters in this book, the author, Selina Hossain, demonstrates her skill in examining the issue of identity while questioning stereotypical gender norms. This study examines the book's potential to inspire readers by challenging gender stereotypes and presenting perspectives on identity and social roles. This study employed a qualitative research approach, with thematic analysis being the primary method used for data collection. The study showed how the book challenges gender stereotypes and presents perspectives on identity and social roles.

Bangladesh Ship Breaking Industry: Is it an Opportunity or Obstacles for Out-Migrant Workers?

The ship breaking industry flourished in Bangladesh after the liberation war in 1971. Since then Bangladesh is leading in this ship breaking sector around the globe. The rapid growth of this industry is specially driven by national iron demands, income generation, and the easy opportunity of employment for the poor people. As most of the workers working here are poor and hail from underdeveloped regions of the country hence this study was designed to find out the obstacles and opportunities that need to encounter when they leave this industry after extensive working years. The instrument used for this research was semi close ended questionnaires, in depth interviews, ethnographic analysis and secondary research. The respondents are from southern and northern parts of Bangladesh, aged 18 years and above. This study revealed that a majority portion of the out migrant workers are sufferings from numerous challenges such as health issue, social stigma, psychological trauma, restricted employment opportunities, limited geographical mobility and so on. Conversely, only a minority of the out migrators are benefited from this industry, specifically those employed in technical or supervisory roles. Overall, this industry has proven detrimental, creating more obstacles rather than opportunities for out-migrant workers lives.

Bangladesh-Pakistan Conflict: An Overview

The Bangladesh-Pakistan conflict, rooted in the events of 1971, marked a pivotal moment in South Asian history. The conflict emerged from deep-seated political, economic, and cultural disparities between East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (now Pakistan). Despites East Pakistan's larger population, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan, leading to widespread discontent. In the 1970 general elections, the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority but was denied power, igniting demands for autonomy in East Pakistan. The situation escalated on March 25, 1971, when the Pakistani military launched Operation Searchlight, a brutal crackdown aimed at quelling the independence movement. This resulted in mass atrocities, including killings, rapes, and the displacement of millions. The ensuing Bangladesh Liberation War saw the emergence of the Mukti Bahini (Liberation Army), with significant civilian support for independence. India's intervention, both in terms of support for the Mukti Bahini and direct military involvement, was crucial in the conflict's resolution. The war ended with the surrender of Pakistani forces on December 16, 1971, leading to the creation of Bangladesh as an independent nation. The conflict caused extensive loss of life and destruction, leaving a legacy of strained Bangladesh-Pakistan relations and ongoing efforts to address the war's human rights violations.

IMPROVING THE TEMPERATURE IN THE METAL CONVERTER AGGREGATE, WITH USING OF THE MULTI-TIERED TUYERE

The oxygen-converter method is the most common of the industrial production of steel in both Ukraine and the world. According to scientific and statistical sources, from 2017 the fate of oxygen-converting steel in the Ukraine was more than 70 % of the total steel production. To date, in the face of invasion of our sovereign state and a full-scale liberation war in Ukraine, the metallurgical enterprises operating with the oxygen converting way of obtaining steel has conditions for significant resource limitations and increasing the cost of energy, fuel resources. Therefore, there is a need for technological solutions that will increase the energy efficiency of blowing in the bath of converter without the use of external fuel resources and energy. Accordingly was developed and tested in the laboratory with physical high temperature modeling, of the tuyere with multi-tiered construction. The developed technological solution allows to organizeted blowing in the melt for help of supersonic oxygen jets through Laval’s nozzles and forming torches flame of the {CO} to {CO2}, which directly act on the surface of the melt, due to their formation with curtain sonic oxygen jets, who organizated with help of two separate groups of the cylindrical nozzles. Thanks to the video and photography and chemical selection of the melt samples, out gases from the converter and the measurement of the melt temperature, during the entire purification blowing of the melt, established the peculiarities of the conversion of the melt with using of the multi-tiered tuyere in the space of the converter bath. It is confirmed that with the use of the multi-tiered tuyere the course of converting of the melt, as with the classical multi-nozzle tuyere, consists of three main technological periods: the first — slag formation and “ignition of the melt”; the second — intense carbon oxidation; the third — getting of final chemical composition and temperature of the melt. It is established that the main difference in the use of multi-tiered tuyere lies in the more intensive begining and progress of thermodynamic, hydrogasodynamic and cerculation heating processes, along with the appearance of forming torches flame of the {CO} to {CO2} from the moment of “ignition of the melt”. Directly burning {CO} to {CO2} in a mixture of waste gases leads to a release of the large amount of heat 565 kJ/mol O2. At the same time, it should be noted that the temperature during burning {CO} to {CO2} in a mix of the waste converter gases with oxygen streams reaches up to 3000 °C in a created combustion flame torch. The predominant formation of the flame torches {CO} to {CO2} was observed after the “ignition of the melt” at the first period at the expense a lower group of cylindrical nozzles. The highest intensity of the formation of the flame torches {CO} to {CO2} was obtained in the second period at the blowing in the melt in the conditions of intense oxidation of carbon of melt, until the carbon in the melt was from 1.2 % to 0.9 % it is value of the transition concentration. Formation of the flames torches {CO} to {CO2} was be for all sonic jets from cylindrical nozzles of the lower and upper block of the blowing. At the same time, the location of the blowing blocks and the angle of inclination of the cylindrical nozzles to the vertical axis of the multi-tiered tuyere in these blocks are calculated so as to ensure the interaction of the flames torches {CO} to {CO2} with the layers of melt and transfer up to 65 % of the heat formed from flames torches {CO} to {CO2} to the melt. It is established that the use of the multi-tiered tuyere with group of Laval’s nozzles and two groups of cylindrical nozzles was use to create sonic oxygen jets, that allows increases the burning {CO} to {CO2} in the range from 29 % to 43 %, it is exceeding corresponding indicators with the use of a two-tiered tuyere in the range of 14 % to 28 %, and compared to the multi-nozzles tuyere of the classic conctruction from 24 % to 38 %. At the same initial temperature of liquid cast iron and other conditions in laboratory experiments of the high-temperature physical modeling with using a multi-tiered tuyere with group Laval’s nozzels and with two groups of cylindrical nozzles for blowing, the finaly temperature of the liquid semiproduct of the steel was higher comparatively with use classic multi-nozzles tuyere, only thanks to increasing burning {CO} to {CO2} without the use of external fuel resources and energy during blowing of the melt. Accordingly, this indicates an improvement in the energy efficiency of the converter process with helps of the multi-tiered tuyere. Bibl. 23, Fig. 4.

Insights Into the Impacts of Guerrilla Violence in Shaping War-Time Relationships in Rural Zimbabwe, 1966–1979

Using Zaka, a district located in Masvingo province, this study scrutinises the nature and dynamics of Zimbabwe's liberation war in the countryside. It focuses on the memories of the liberation war in Zaka to demonstrate how guerrilla violence defined guerrilla–civilian relations in rural Zimbabwe. The study shows that the liberation war in the countryside was a struggle for power, domination and influence right from the peasants, chimbwidos and mujibhas (young female and male guerrilla assistants respectively) to the lowest-ranked guerrilla up to the top general.