Liberal Democracy Research Articles

The Paradoxical Development of Liberal Governance: International Adoption Policy and Professional Social Work in Authoritarian South Korea, 1953–1976

Abstract This article explores the development of international adoption policy in post-liberation South Korea, emphasizing the roles of American and Korean professional social workers. By analyzing the orphan registry and a pivotal international adoption law, it reveals how international adoption in South Korea presents a unique opportunity to observe the formation of modern social policy in a newly liberated nation during the Cold War. The study argues that adoption policy served as a crucial locus of transnational governance, where American and Korean social workers pursued their liberal ideals of professional social work within the context of the authoritarian policies of the South Korean state. However, their quest for scientific professionalism, standardized procedures, and public oversight led to a paradoxical evolution of adoption policy, diverging sharply from the trajectory seen in Western liberal democracies where social work significantly contributed to the consolidation and expansion of the welfare state. In South Korea, embedded transnationality and ideological mismatch resulted in the state’s further withdrawal and the creation of policy workarounds that undermined the core social work principle of the child’s best interests. This case highlights the complexities and blurred moral boundaries in the shaping of modern governance and the broader journey toward modernity under postcolonial, Cold War conditions.

Does the Rise of the Global South Weaken Democracy? The Pivotal Case of the 2024 Presidential Elections in Venezuela

It is a common critique of the Global South that its rising protagonism is a tool for authoritarian forces. The prominent role of authoritarian countries in coalitions such as BRICS and the Non-Aligned Movement, which claim to represent the Global South, has strengthened this concern. To shed light on those issues, this paper provides an in-depth case study of the 2024 elections crisis in Venezuela and the role of the Global South in resolving it. The question asked is to what extent countries identifying with the Global South were able to simultaneously promote democracy and adopt a foreign policy identity aligned with the Global South. The paper shows how the position and action of different Global South countries differed significantly, from an outright rejection of the fraudulent elections, to their endorsement. There were also concerted efforts by countries strongly identifying with the Global South to facilitate a democratic solution. The main argument developed is that a Global South narrative’s interweaving of anti-imperialism and opposition against foreign interference with opposition against liberal democracy promotion has left a limited space for democracy advocacy among countries with a Global South identity. This may weaken democratic forces among Global South countries in the future.

Reconceptualising Security-development Paradigm: A Critical Analysis of Chinese ‘Development Peace Model’ in the Middle East

In recent years, China has emerged as a significant player in the intersection of international security and development in the Middle East. This development coincides with a decline in the enduring dominance of the US in the region’s security and development affairs. In contrast, China has pursued a cautious, impartial and novel concept of zero enemy policy with regional states. While existing research has explored Chinese economic engagement in the Middle East, literature focusing on the ‘Development Peace Model’ in relation to the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) remains limited. This article aims to provide a critical analysis of how China’s pursuit of a multi-polar world order, based on principles of neutrality and partnership for promoting stability through the ‘Development Peace Model’, offers an alternative approach to ‘Liberal Democratic Peace’ in the Middle East. Furthermore, the article examines why Middle Eastern states are receptive to China’s ‘Development Peace Model’ as they seek to address their economic crises.

CHINA, THE ILLIBERAL COUNTER-ORDER, AND THE ROLE OF VALUES IN THE STRATEGIC RESPONSE

This study examines how the People’s Republic of China’s advance of its economic and other objectives both supports, and benefits from the challenges by illiberal states to the rules-based international order. It argues that one of the most important dynamics of the current international system is how, in the context of interdependence and interaction accelerated by new technologies, the feedback loop between those activities of the PRC, and its international partners, are simultaneously enriching and empowering the PRC, and expanding the space in which such illiberal actors can operate, while also weakening the institutions and rule of law which have created the basis for interdependence, security, and prosperity since the end of the Second World War. This work recognizes the variety of goals of illiberal actors with which the PRC engages for its own benefit, distinguishing the dynamic from the structure of competing “blocks” that characterized the Cold War. This work further looks at the interaction between political and economic systems under stress new technologies, and the role of the state in this transformational period, It argues that the new dynamic is reopening fundamental questions about the relationship between the state, individual, and society, and associated questions about economic and political organization itself is in question. In addressing these challenges, this work concludes that transactional “competition” between Western democracies and their opponents for the loyalties of the rest is not enough. It argues that that Western democracies must both hedge against the coming destabilization of the international system, while leading by example and advancing more compelling arguments in the new context for why societal interests are best served by the protection of individual rights and individual choice as the foundation of government legitimacy, as well as for individual ownership and initiative, rather than government as the principal generator of economic value and technological progress in society.

Freedom of Association: The Case of Poland

Abstract The role of this chapter is to show the specifics of freedom of association in Poland. Therefore, in addition to analysing the normative layer, it includes references to the historical state of the law and the practice of interpreting and operationalising this freedom. Through the presentation of legal provisions, I wish to show the local (“domestic”) specificity and situate it in the broader context of the system of constitutional liberal democracy embodied by the 1997 Constitution currently in force in Poland. The operationalisation of freedom of association will be presented on the basis of selected institutions of three particularly relevant statutes: the Law on Associations, the Act on Political Parties and the Act on Trade Unions.

Tweeting for Influence: Analysing France and China’s Cultural Diplomacy on Social Media, a Mixed Methods Approach

Abstract How are states using cultural diplomacy on social media to expand their power? This research analyses over 67,000 tweets from the French and Chinese Ministries of Foreign Affairs (mfa s) as well as their respective state-sponsored cultural networks including Institut Français, Alliance Française, and the Confucius Institutes. Stephen Lukes’ three-dimensional power framework, where cultural authority legitimizes power over others, provides the study’s theoretical basis. In analysing the tweets, I employ a mixed methods approach including vader sentiment analysis, word frequency analysis, and thematic analysis. While both states aim to present their cultures as high-value cultures, the similarities end there. As a liberal democracy, France encourages open expression through its cultural institutions, including discourse critical of France. In contrast, China’s cultural diplomatic messaging is precisely controlled and speaks about China in invariably exalting terms. This study offers evidence that regime type has a powerful effect on cultural diplomatic messaging on social media.

Democratisation in Southern Europe: a contingent or inevitable process?

ABSTRACT Debates on democratisation often struggle to reconcile structural and agency approaches. Structural explanations highlight factors like economic development, natural resources, inequality, and international power shifts. Agency-based explanations focus on the choices of political actors, including elites and social movements, and their interactions leading to democracy. This study compares Greece, Portugal, and Spain, harmonising these perspectives. Structural and agency forces are not contradictory when temporal scope conditions are clearly defined. Despite differing democratisation paths, Southern European countries experienced rapid modernisation, and political, social, and economic convergence during the consolidation phase. Modernisation favoured liberal democracy and democratic consolidation through varied events and actor combinations. Our analysis underscores the importance of considering both structural and agency-based factors in understanding democratisation processes.

Collingwood on Spinoza and the Social-Political Role of Art

Abstract We argue that the proper context for understanding Collingwood’s The Principles of Art is his claim that it has bearing “upon the condition of art in England in 1937”. We thus argue that he formulated a philosophical argument that underpins avant-garde dramatic poetry and theatrical practices (Eliot, Auden and the Group Theatre), taking his interpretation of Spinoza’s Ethics 5 prop. 3 to be the book’s central thesis: it is through art that one knows, against the ‘corruption of consciousness’, what emotions one feels and recognizes them as one’s own. Collingwood further believed that this could only be achieved through collaboration between the artist and the community, validating new theatrical practices involving interaction with the audience. We analyse these views in the context of England in 1937: in an era marked by the rise of Fascism and Nazism, Collingwood believed that art thus conceived could help restoring emotional support for the defense of liberal democracies. We conclude with an exploration of parallels with and divergences from the Spinozist idea of ‘mobilizing affects’ in contemporary ‘left populism’ (Mouffe).

Nigeria’s 4-D Diplomacy and Regional Integration in West Africa: A Peacebuilding Debacle?

Nigeria’s soft power capabilities in Africa largely derive from its historical Afrocentric and good neighborliness foreign policy orientation. In West Africa and beyond, this foreign policy slant was activated to advance the de-colonial and anti-apartheid movements as well as restore political order in several security-beleaguered parts of Africa. Apart from the rigid application of Chapter Two of the ECOWAS Supplementary Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance which frowns at power acquired or maintained through unconstitutional means, Nigeria’s Afrocentric and good neighborliness foreign policy posturing has shifted under President Bola Tinubu’s administration. The foreign policy shift reflects the global dominance of liberal democracy in the context of the resurgence of military coup d’état in West Africa. Relying on the fundamental assumptions of liberal internationalism, this study unpacked how the shift in Nigeria’s foreign policy stance has affected regional integration in West Africa. The study found that it is not in Nigeria’s national interest to be in open hostility with its proximate neighbors because of its inclination toward the propagation of the ideals of liberal democracy in Africa.

A Yin-Yang Perspective of Street-Level Policy Entrepreneurs

We introduce a cultural perspective, Yin-Yang logic, to explore how street-level policy entrepreneurs (SLPEs) formulate policy and foster inter-local collaborations across 14 Chinese cities. Drawing on a case forming the Chinese Eastern Northeast Economic Zone (2003-2016), we identify 20 critical incidents through interviews and content analysis. We make four main theoretical contributions: (i) this study is the first in the SLPEs literature to introduce a cultural perspective, the Yin-Yang logic, for understanding the complex yet central role that SLPEs play in policy innovation; (ii) it reveals a sequential six-stage process view in policy innovation formation from the Yin-Yang perspective; (iii) it extends our understanding of policy actors, SLPEs, as change agents outside Western democracies and provides the Yin-Yang perspective for dealing with the contextual paradoxical conditions; and (iv) SLPEs demonstrate three Yin-Yang framed capabilities in harnessing the natural momentum (shi) generated by the interaction and balancing forces of Yin-Yang dynamics.

What we mean

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

The future

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

The strategic utility of cyber operations

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

The cyber dimension of the Russia–Ukraine war

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

Responsible cyber power

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

Insecurity and political apathy in Nigeria’s elections: a study of Kano State elections (2011 - 2019)

This paper explores insecurity as a cause of political apathy that hinders political participation in Nigeria, taking Kano State as the context of the research. It adopts qualitative approach, simultaneously using both primary and secondary sources; in-depth interviews, scholarly articles and journals. Interviewees were purposively sampled. Rational Choice Theory is used as the theoretical pedestal to elucidate that partaking in political activity though an element of liberal democracy happens based on the choice and volition of citizens. Such a right could be taken away when citizens are disenfranchised as a result of insecurity; political violence, hooliganism etc. The study finds out among other things that violence emanates from the misconduct of thugs, sponsored or hired by politicians to rig elections, intimidate voters and scare off opponents at polling units. Also, belief of politicians that elections must be won by hook or crook and at all cost scares voters from falling victims at the hands of politicians and their political soldiers. Accordingly, the study recommends adequate civic education and political sensitization to citizens at early age through conventional schools and otherwise. Also, the electoral body should sanitize the system by employing stringent rules in the electoral process to ensure safe and violent-free environment before, during and after elections. Vetting and screening to-be political officers should also be rigorous, entailing character, records, use of drugs and association with political hooligans.

A short history of cyber operations

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

Strategic risks

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

Maintaining balance

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

The UK model

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.