Lewis's Woodpecker Research Articles

Lewis's Woodpeckers (Melanerpes lewis) provision their young with nestling passerines

Most examples of woodpeckers preying on vertebrates are thought to be opportunistic, and the wider role that some woodpeckers play as nest predators of other birds has not been appreciated until recently. To date, predation on nestling birds has been documented in at least 10 woodpecker species, including 5 of the 6 species of Melanerpes that nest in the United States. From 2018 to 2020, we documented 57 instances in which adult Lewis's Woodpeckers (Melanerpes lewis) provisioned young with nestling passerines (11.9% of 480 food deliveries), which constitutes the first verification of nest predation in this species. Among picids, nest predation is considered to be a widespread and typical foraging strategy only in the Red-bellied Woodpecker (M. carolinus) and Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major). We suggest that additional research will reveal that other woodpecker species routinely prey on nestling birds.

Lewis's woodpecker nesting habitat suitability: Predictive models for application within burned forests

Wildfire-generated snags provide key habitat for wildlife associated with recently disturbed forests, offering nesting and foraging resources for several woodpecker species. Snag harvest through post-fire salvage logging provides economic value but reduces habitat in recently burned forests. Managers of recently burned forests often must identify suitable woodpecker habitat within timeframes precluding field surveys. We developed nesting habitat suitability models for the Lewis's woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis)—a species of conservation concern potentially impacted by salvage logging—to inform post-fire management planning that includes habitat conservation objectives. Using weighted logistic regression, we selected models that maximized predictive performance measured by spatial cross-validation to verify model applicability to novel wildfire locations. From 1994 to 2018, we monitored 348 nest sites, ≤5 years post-fire, at four wildfire locations across the Inland Pacific Northwest, USA. We used both exclusively remotely sensed covariates (to support habitat mapping) and a combination of remotely sensed and field collected covariates (to inform logging prescriptions). Top models proved predictive of nest distribution across novel wildfire locations, describing positive relationships with local and landscape-scale burn severity, landscape-scale open (0–10%) and low (10–40%) canopy cover, large nest-tree diameters, locally high snag densities, and southeast-facing slopes. The top combination model was more discriminating of nest from non-nest sites compared to the top remotely sensed model (RPI = 0.976 vs. 0.733, AUC= 0.794 vs. 0.716), indicating the value of vegetation field measurements for quantifying habitat. Herein is exemplified an effective process for developing and evaluating predictive habitat models, broadly applicable, and useful for prioritization of post-fire forest management objectives.

Habitat-mediated breeding performance of Lewis's Woodpeckers (Melanerpes lewis) in British Columbia.

Tree cavities provide a critical resource for cavity-nesting animals, and high quality cavities can be difficult for animals to acquire in habitats where competition is high. We investigated the breeding performance of Lewis’s Woodpeckers in three habitat types in British Columbia, Canada in 2013 and 2014. We also assessed whether the number of nest competitors and cavity availability influenced the habitat specific breeding performance of this threatened cavity nesting species. We found that daily nest survival rate was lower in burned habitat (0.15 ± 0.08 (0.05–0.37)) than in live pine (0.72 ± 0.10 (0.51–0.87)) or cottonwood (0.69 ± 0.09 (0.51–0.83)) habitats. However, hatching success (the proportion of eggs that hatch) was lower in live pine habitat (0.59 ± 0.09 95% CI) than burned (0.77 ± 0.19 95% CI) or cottonwood (0.80 ± 0.07 95% CI) habitat, and the fledging success of successful nests in live pine and burned habitat (1.86 ± 0.31 and 1.88 ± 0.59 95% CI, respectively) was slightly lower than in cottonwood habitat (2.61 ± 0.45 95% CI). Consequently, Lewis’s Woodpeckers in cottonwood habitat produced more fledglings per nesting attempt (2.05 ± 0.49 95% CI) than in live pine (1.53 ± 0.35 95% CI) or burned (0.79 ± 0.49 95% CI) habitat. Habitats differed in the number of nesting competitors and the number of suitable cavities surrounding active Lewis’s Woodpecker nests. Our results showed that cavity density best explained breeding performance differences although the mechanisms remain unclear. There was no evidence that the number of heterospecific nest competitors, including the invasive European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), explained or influenced Lewis’s Woodpecker breeding performance. Cavity density influenced the productivity of successful nests but did not explain habitat differences in hatching success or daily nest survival. Further work is required to understand the mechanistic basis for the habitat specific breeding performance of Lewis’s Woodpeckers. Habitat differences in breeding performance in British Columbia are not consistent with those in other regions, highlighting the importance of regionally-specific demographic data for managing species at risk.

Transferability of habitat suitability models for nesting woodpeckers associated with wildfire

ABSTRACT Following wildfire, forest managers are challenged with meeting both socioeconomic demands (e.g., salvage logging) and mandates requiring habitat conservation for disturbance-associated wildlife (e.g., woodpeckers). Habitat suitability models for nesting woodpeckers can be informative, but tests of model transferability are needed to understand how broadly models developed at one location can be applied to inform post-fire forest management at other locations. We developed habitat suitability models and tested their transferability for 2 disturbance-associated woodpecker species, Black-backed (Picoides arcticus) and Lewis's (Melanerpes lewis) woodpecker. Habitat suitability models consisted of weighted logistic regression models comparing environmental conditions at nest versus non-nest sites. We developed models at each of 3 wildfire locations in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, and then examined predictive performance for each model at alternate (“application”) locations. Models generally discrim...

Mapping Suitable Lewis's Woodpecker Nesting Habitat in a Post-Fire Landscape

As remote sensing mapping products representing important habitat components increase in availability, detail, and accuracy, new opportunities arise to map predicted habitat for forest species of conservation concern. One such species is the Lewis's woodpecker which is a species of conservation interest in multiple states and throughout its range in British Columbia, Canada with habitat loss and degradation proposed as contributing factors in the species decline. The purpose of this study was to model and map Lewis's woodpecker nesting habitat using primary (directly derived) and secondary (modeled using ground calibration data) remote sensing products, as well as contribute to the knowledge of nesting ecology for the species in a source habitat type. We found promise in the utility of lidar and Landsat time series modeled snag and shrub products in conjunction with additional lidar structure and topographic metrics for predicting nesting habitat for the Lewis's woodpecker across a post-fire landscape. Our selected model had a percent correctly classified rate of 83.3% and contained additional variables (variability in canopy cover and topographic slope) to those included in the Fish and Wildlife Service habitat suitability model (HSM) for the species (canopy cover, shrub cover, and density of large snags). We were able to apply the remote sensing products to map realized habitat relationships for this species of conservation concern in an identified source habitat type, providing a potential resource for local scale conservation and management efforts and adding to the regional knowledge of habitat selection for the Lewis's woodpecker.

Integrating Recent Land Cover Mapping Efforts to Update the National Gap Analysis Program's Species Habitat Map

Abstract. Over the past decade, great progress has been made to develop national extent land cover mapping products to address natural resource issues. One of the core products of the GAP Program is range-wide species distribution models for nearly 2000 terrestrial vertebrate species in the U.S. We rely on deductive modeling of habitat affinities using these products to create models of habitat availability. That approach requires that we have a thematically rich and ecologically meaningful map legend to support the modeling effort. In this work, we tested the integration of the Multi-Resolution Landscape Characterization Consortium's National Land Cover Database 2011 and LANDFIRE's Disturbance Products to update the 2001 National GAP Vegetation Dataset to reflect 2011 conditions. The revised product can then be used to update the species models. We tested the update approach in three geographic areas (Northeast, Southeast, and Interior Northwest). We used the NLCD product to identify areas where the cover type mapped in 2011 was different from what was in the 2001 land cover map. We used Google Earth and ArcGIS base maps as reference imagery in order to label areas identified as "changed" to the appropriate class from our map legend. Areas mapped as urban or water in the 2011 NLCD map that were mapped differently in the 2001 GAP map were accepted without further validation and recoded to the corresponding GAP class. We used LANDFIRE's Disturbance products to identify changes that are the result of recent disturbance and to inform the reassignment of areas to their updated thematic label. We ran species habitat models for three species including Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) and the White-tailed Jack Rabbit (Lepus townsendii) and Brown Headed nuthatch (Sitta pusilla). For each of three vertebrate species we found important differences in the amount and location of suitable habitat between the 2001 and 2011 habitat maps. Specifically, Brown headed nuthatch habitat in 2011 was −14% of the 2001 modeled habitat, whereas Lewis's Woodpecker increased by 4%. The white-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus townsendii) had a net change of −1% (11% decline, 10% gain). For that species we found the updates related to opening of forest due to burning and regenerating shrubs following harvest to be the locally important main transitions. In the Southeast updates related to timber management and urbanization are locally important.

Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis)

Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis)

A risk-based approach to evaluating wildlife demographics for management in a changing climate: a case study of the Lewis's Woodpecker.

Given the projected threat that climate change poses to biodiversity, the need for proactive response efforts is clear. However, integrating uncertain climate change information into conservation planning is challenging, and more explicit guidance is needed. To this end, this article provides a specific example of how a risk-based approach can be used to incorporate a species’ response to climate into conservation decisions. This is shown by taking advantage of species’ response (i.e., impact) models that have been developed for a well-studied bird species of conservation concern. Specifically, we examine the current and potential impact of climate on nest survival of the Lewis’s Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) in two different habitats. To address climate uncertainty, climate scenarios are developed by manipulating historical weather observations to create ensembles (i.e., multiple sequences of daily weather) that reflect historical variability and potential climate change. These ensembles allow for a probabilistic evaluation of the risk posed to Lewis’s Woodpecker nest survival and are used in two demographic analyses. First, the relative value of each habitat is compared in terms of nest survival, and second, the likelihood of exceeding a critical population threshold is examined. By embedding the analyses in a risk framework, we show how management choices can be made to be commensurate with a defined level of acceptable risk. The results can be used to inform habitat prioritization and are discussed in the context of an economic framework for evaluating trade-offs between management alternatives.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00267-012-9953-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Habitat Selection and Reproductive Success of Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) at Its Northern Limit

Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) has experienced population declines in both Canada and the United States and in 2010 was assigned a national listing of threatened in Canada. We conducted a two-year study (2004–2005) of this species at its northern range limit, the South Okanagan Valley in British Columbia, Canada. Our main objective was to determine whether the habitat features that influenced nest-site selection also predicted nest success, or whether other factors (e.g. cavity dimensions, clutch initiation date or time of season) were more important. Nest tree decay class, density of suitable cavities and total basal area of large trees were the best predictors of nest-site selection, but these factors were unrelated to nesting success. Estimates of demographic parameters (mean ± SE) included daily nest survival rate (0.988±0.003, years combined), nest success (0.52±0.08), clutch size (5.00±0.14 eggs), female fledglings per successful nest (1.31±0.11), and annual productivity (0.68±0.12 female fledglings per nest per year). Although higher nest survival was associated with both early and late initiated clutches, early-initiated clutches allowed birds to gain the highest annual productivity as early clutches were larger. Nests in deep cavities with small entrances experienced lower predation risk especially during the peak period of nest predation. We concluded that nest-site selection can be predicted by a number of easily measured habitat variables, whereas nest success depended on complicated ecological interactions among nest predators, breeding behaviors, and cavity features. Thus, habitat-based conservation strategies should also consider ecological factors that may not be well predicted by habitat.

Historical and Current Distribution and Populations of Bird Species in Prairie-Oak Habitats in the Pacific Northwest

The loss and degradation of prairie-oak habitats has resulted in significant changes in bird species breeding distributions and populations. Among the 49 species highly associated with prairie-oak habitats, 21 have experienced extirpations, range contractions, and/or regional population declines. Three species have been regionally extirpated as breeding species since the 1940s, including Lewis's woodpecker, which historically occurred throughout the region. Eleven species have experienced local or ecoregional extirpations and/or range contractions. The predominant pattern of range contraction starts at the northern edge of a species range and moves southward. Nine species have relatively small regional populations, six with limited distribution in the Klamath Mountains ecoregion, and three with small and patchily distributed breeding populations throughout the region. There are nine species with significantly declining regional population trends with a high degree of confidence based on Breeding Bird Survey data, and five with similar declines using Christmas Bird Count data. Several other species may be declining based on a lower degree of confidence in the data or anecdotal observations. These include both endemic subspecies, streaked horned lark and Oregon vesper sparrow, which have regional population estimates of <2,000 and <3,000 birds, respectively. Six species have expanded their range in prairie-oak habitats in the last 50 years. The predominant pattern of range expansion starts at the northern edge of a species range and moves northward. Recommended actions to support prairie-oak bird conservation include range-wide and local inventories and monitoring to determine status, and evaluations and implementation of reintroductions or federal listings as appropriate.

Modeling nest survival of cavity‐nesting birds in relation to postfire salvage logging

AbstractSalvage logging practices in recently burned forests often have direct effects on species associated with dead trees, particularly cavity‐nesting birds. As such, evaluation of postfire management practices on nest survival rates of cavity nesters is necessary for determining conservation strategies. We monitored 1,797 nests of 6 cavity‐nesting bird species: Lewis's woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis), hairy woodpecker (Picoides villosus), black‐backed woodpecker (P. arcticus), northern flicker (Colaptes auratus), western bluebird (Sialia mexicana), and mountain bluebird (S. currucoides) from 1994 to 2004 in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), mixed‐severity burned forests (partially logged and unlogged) of Idaho, USA. Based on a priori hypotheses, we modeled daily survival rate (DSR) of nests as a function of abiotic (temperature, precipitation), temporal (time since fire, calendar year) and biotic factors (distance to unburned forest, nest height, and tree harvest [partial‐salvage logging vs. unlogged]). Multiple abiotic and biotic factors, other than direct effects of salvage logging, affected daily survival rates of breeding cavity‐nesting birds. Hairy woodpecker was the only species in which partial‐salvage logging had a measurable, negative impact on DSR. Managers implementing carefully planned salvage logging prescriptions that include both unlogged reserves and partially logged areas can expect to maintain habitat for successfully breeding cavity‐nesting birds of the interior northwestern United States. Our results also suggest that nest survival for some species of cavity‐nesting birds could be improved if unlogged reserves are located centrally in postfire forests, distant from unburned habitats that potentially serve as sources of nest predators. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.

Nest-Site Selection and Nest Survival of Lewis’s Woodpecker in Aspen Riparian Woodlands

Abstract. Riparian woodlands of aspen (Populus tremuloides) provide valuable breeding habitat for several cavity-nesting birds. Although anecdotal information for this habitat is available for Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis), no study has previously examined the importance of aspen woodlands to this species' breeding biology. From 2002 to 2004, we monitored 76 Lewis's Woodpecker nests in aspen riparian woodlands of south-central Idaho to describe nest-site characteristics and estimate the nests' survival. We quantified the vegetation at nest sites and randomly selected other sites to determine habitat features important in the species' selection of a nest site. We then related these features, as well as several time-specific covariates, to nest survival. Lewis's Woodpecker selected nest trees that were larger in diameter than random trees and selected nest sites with more trees, fewer woody stems, and less bare ground than random sites. However, nest-site characteristics were not important determina...

Nest Niche Partitioning of Lewis's and Red-headed Woodpeckers in Burned Pine Forests

Abstract Lewis's (Melanerpes lewis) and Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) breeding ranges overlap slightly, but co-occurrence within habitats is thought to be rare because of niche similarity. Our objectives were to examine factors that allowed for co-existence in two burned pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in the Black Hills, South Dakota. We monitored 53 Lewis's and 38 Red-headed Woodpecker nests between 2002 and 2005, and compared clutch initiation dates and nest-site selection. Clutch initiation dates did not differ between species for 3 of 4 years. We compared multiple habitat factors surrounding nests of the two species, and only tree and snag densities differed between Red-headed Woodpecker nest sites (65.1 ± 5.78 stems/ha) and those of Lewis's Woodpeckers (48.5 ± 6.06 stems/ha). These results are consistent with the foraging techniques used by the two species. We suggest that habitat partitioning is an important mechanism of coexistence for these two species, but also recommend furt...

Habitat‐Suitability Models for Cavity‐Nesting Birds in a Postfire Landscape

ABSTRACT Models of habitat suitability in postfire landscapes are needed by land managers to make timely decisions regarding postfire timber harvest and other management activities. Many species of cavity‐nesting birds are dependent on postfire landscapes for breeding and other aspects of their life history and are responsive to postfire management activities (e.g., timber harvest). In addition, several cavity nesters are designated as species at risk. We compare the ability of 2 types of models to distinguish between nest and non‐nest locations of 6 cavity‐nesting bird species (Lewis's woodpecker [Melanerpes lewis], black‐backed woodpecker [Picoides arcticus], hairy woodpecker [P. villosus], northern flicker [Colaptes auratus], western bluebird [Sialia mexicana], and mountain bluebird [S. currucoides]) in the early postfire years for a ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest in Idaho, USA. The 2 model sets consisted of 1) models based on readily available remotely sensed data and 2) models containing field‐collected data in addition to remotely sensed data (combination models). We evaluated models of nesting habitat by quantifying the model's ability to correctly identify nest and non‐nest locations and by determining the percentage of correctly identified nest locations. Additionally, we developed relative habitat‐suitability maps for nesting habitat of black‐backed and Lewis's woodpeckers from the best models. For all species except Lewis's woodpeckers, model performance improved with the addition of field‐collected data. Models containing remotely sensed data adequately distinguished between nest and non‐nest locations for black‐backed woodpecker and Lewis's woodpecker only, whereas models containing both field‐collected and remotely sensed data were adequate for all 6 species. Improvements in the availability of more accurate remote sensing technology would likely lead to improvements in the ability of the models to predict nesting locations. External validation with data from other wildfires is necessary to confirm the general applicability of our habitat‐suitability models to other forests. Land managers responsible for maintaining habitat for cavity‐nesting birds in postfire landscapes can use these models to identify potential nesting areas for these species and select areas in burned forests where postfire salvage logging is most likely to have minimal impacts on cavity‐nesting bird habitats.

Old Burns as Source Habitats for Lewis's Woodpeckers Breeding in the Black Hills of South Dakota

Abstract Abstract Crown-burned pine forests are an important breeding habitat for many cavity-nesting birds, and can serve as a source habitat for some woodpecker species. However, it is unclear if this function continues with postburn succession as predators recolonize burned habitats and snag density declines. Lewis's Woodpeckers (Melanerpes lewis) are considered “burn specialists” and are a species of conservation concern. We monitored Lewis's Woodpeckers nesting in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests to determine the source or sink function of old-burn habitats in the Black Hills of South Dakota (study units burned in 1988 and 1991); concurrently, we examined avian and mammalian predator communities within burned and unburned areas. Between 2002 and 2005 we found 55 Lewis's Woodpecker nests, 51 of which were successful. Using adult and juvenile mortality rates for other melanerpine species taken from the literature, we determined that the old-burn habitats we sampled were acting as sources for Lewis's Woodpeckers. Point counts and tracking tube surveys suggested that both avian and mammalian predators had successfully recolonized these old-burn habitats, as both groups were common in old burns and in unburned forests. The unusually high nesting success of Lewis's Woodpeckers in the Black Hills is likely due to the absence of some common nest predators. While the high success rates might continue, we suggest that the overall contribution of young to the region from these burned sites will decline as suitable habitat components (such as snags) decline with the continuation of postfire succession.

Nest Densities of Cavity-Nesting Birds in Relation to Postfire Salvage Logging and Time Since Wildfire

Abstract Abstract We monitored the nest densities and nest survival of seven cavity-nesting bird species, including four open-space foragers (American Kestrel [Falco sparverius], Lewis's Woodpecker [Melanerpes lewis], Western Bluebird [Sialia mexicana], and Mountain Bluebird [S. currucoides]) and three wood-foragers (Hairy Woodpecker [Picoides villosus], Black-backed Woodpecker [P. arcticus], and Northern Flicker [Colaptes auratus]), after two wildfires (one partially salvage-logged and one unlogged) in western Idaho from 1994–2004. We estimated the relationship between nest density and time since fire, tested for statistical differences in nest densities and nest survival in the partially salvage-logged vs. unlogged wildfires, and tested for differences in nest survival between early (1–4 years after fire) and late (5–12 years after fire) postfire periods. Nest densities of open-space foragers and Northern Flickers generally increased with time since fire, whereas nest densities of Black-backed and Hairy Woodpeckers peaked 4–5 years postfire. Nest densities of wood-foraging species and Mountain Bluebirds were significantly higher in the unlogged burn, whereas Lewis's Woodpeckers had significantly higher nest densities in the partially logged burn. Kestrels tended to favor the partially logged burn, while Western Bluebird nest densities were nearly equal in both burned areas. For most species, postfire period and treatment (partially logged vs. unlogged) had little influence on nest survival. However, Hairy Woodpecker nest survival was significantly lower in the partially logged burn versus the unlogged wildfire in the early postfire period, and Lewis's Woodpecker nest survival was significantly reduced in the later postfire period versus the early postfire period in the partially logged burn. Importantly, the salvage logging was designed to retain more than half of the snags over 23 cm in diameter, which provided suitable nesting habitat for open-space foragers during the decade following fire.

OLD BURNS AS SOURCE HABITATS FOR LEWIS'S WOODPECKERS BREEDING IN THE BLACK HILLS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Abstract ABSTRACT Crown-burned pine forests are an important breeding habitat for many cavity-nesting birds, and can serve as a source habitat for some woodpecker species. However, it is unclear if this function continues with postburn succession as predators recolonize burned habitats and snag density declines. Lewis's Woodpeckers (Melanerpes lewis) are considered “burn specialists” and are a species of conservation concern. We monitored Lewis's Woodpeckers nesting in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests to determine the source or sink function of old-burn habitats in the Black Hills of South Dakota (study units burned in 1988 and 1991); concurrently, we examined avian and mammalian predator communities within burned and unburned areas. Between 2002 and 2005 we found 55 Lewis's Woodpecker nests, 51 of which were successful. Using adult and juvenile mortality rates for other melanerpine species taken from the literature, we determined that the old-burn habitats we sampled were acting as sources for Le...

NEST DENSITIES OF CAVITY-NESTING BIRDS IN RELATION TO POSTFIRE SALVAGE LOGGING AND TIME SINCE WILDFIRE

Abstract ABSTRACT We monitored the nest densities and nest survival of seven cavity-nesting bird species, including four open-space foragers (American Kestrel [Falco sparverius], Lewis's Woodpecker [Melanerpes lewis], Western Bluebird [Sialia mexicana], and Mountain Bluebird [S. currucoides]) and three wood-foragers (Hairy Woodpecker [Picoides villosus], Black-backed Woodpecker [P. arcticus], and Northern Flicker [Colaptes auratus]), after two wildfires (one partially salvage-logged and one unlogged) in western Idaho from 1994–2004. We estimated the relationship between nest density and time since fire, tested for statistical differences in nest densities and nest survival in the partially salvage-logged vs. unlogged wildfires, and tested for differences in nest survival between early (1–4 years after fire) and late (5–12 years after fire) postfire periods. Nest densities of open-space foragers and Northern Flickers generally increased with time since fire, whereas nest densities of Black-backed and Hairy...

A Literature Review on the Environmental Effects of Postfire Logging

Abstract Literature on logging after wildfire is reviewed, with a focus on environmental effects of logging activity and the removal of large woody structure. As in unburned stands, log retrieval systems vary considerably in their immediate effect on soils in the postfire environment, with ground-based systems generally causing more disturbance than aerial systems. Timber harvest methods used by managers can mitigate erosion effects—for example, logging residue can decrease erosion by impeding overland flow. Ground disturbance from postfire logging can encourage establishment of different plant species (including nonnatives) and can influence the growth of trees. The removal of large woody structures typical in postfire logging operations can change plant species composition, reduce plant species richness, and increase conifer growth in the first years after logging, but can also reduce the probability that insect pest populations will build up and infest adjacent stands. Removal of large woody structures can cause declines in the abundance of several cavity-nesting bird species, including mountain bluebird, and black-backed, hairy, and three-toed woodpeckers; Lewis woodpecker tends to increase after postfire logging. Overall, studies on the environmental effects of postfire logging are limited, arguing for the use of adaptive management to monitor effects of logging and to adjust practices accordingly. West. J. Appl. For. 16(4):159-168.

Reproductive Success of Lewis's Woodpecker in Burned Pine and Cottonwood Riparian Forests

Abstract Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) has been characterized as a “burn specialist” because of its preference for nesting within burned pine forests. No prior study, however, has demonstrated the relative importance of crown-burned forests to this woodpecker species by examining its reproductive success in different forest types. We studied breeding Lewis's Woodpeckers in cottonwood (Populus fremontii) riparian forest patches of Colorado and crown-burned ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests of Idaho to compare their reproductive success, productivity, and potential source-sink status in the two forest types. Daily nest survival rates were significantly lower in cottonwood compared to burned pine forests. Nesting success was 46% (n = 65) in cottonwood forests and 78% (n = 283) in burned pine forests. Proportion of nests destroyed by predators was significantly higher in cottonwood forests (34%) compared to burned pine forests (16%). We consistently found crown-burned forests to be potential source habitat, whereas cottonwood riparian sites were more often concluded to be potential sink habitat. Cottonwood riparian forests were surrounded primarily by an agricultural landscape where the composition and abundance of nest predators was likely very different than the predator assemblage occupying a large-scale burn in a relatively natural landscape. Conversion of riparian and adjacent grassland landscapes to agriculture and prevention of wildfire in ponderosa pine forests have likely reduced nesting habitat for this species. Prescribed understory fire is the prevailing management tool for restoring ponderosa pine ecosystems. Conditions created by crown fire may be equally important in maintaining ponderosa pine systems and conserving nesting habitat for the Lewis's Woodpecker. Éxito Reproductivo de Melanerpes lewis en Bosques de Pinos Quemados y Bosques Ribereños de Populus fremontii Resumen. Melanerpes lewis ha sido caracterizado como un “especialista de quemas” porque prefiere anidar en áreas de pinos maduros quemados. Sin embargo, ningún estudio anterior ha demostrado la importancia relativa de los bosques de árboles con copas quemadas para este carpintero examinando su éxito reproductivo en diferentes tipos de bosques. Estudiamos M. lewis reproductivos en parches de bosques ribereños de Populus fremontii en Colorado y bosques de Pinus ponderosa con las copas quemadas en Idaho para comparar su éxito reproductivo, productividad y la condición potencial de fuente-sumidero de los dos tipos de bosques. Las tasas diarias de supervivencia de los nidos fueron significativamente más bajas en los bosques de Populus fremontii que en las áreas de pinos maduros quemados. El éxito de los nidos fue de 46% (n = 65) en los bosques de Populus fremontii y 78% (n = 283) en los bosques de pinos quemados. La proporción de nidos destruídos por depredadores fue signicativamente más alta en los bosques de Populus fremontii (34%) que los bosques de pinos quemados (16%). Encontramos consistentemente que las áreas de pinos con las copas quemadas son potencialmente hábitats fuente mientras que los bosques de Populus fremontii fueron considerados como sumideros potenciales con mayor frecuencia. Los bosques de Populus fremontii estaban rodeados principalmente por un paisaje agrícola donde la composición y la abundancia de los depredadores de nidos eran probablemente muy diferentes de las de un área quemada de gran escala en medio de un paisaje natural. La conversión de paisajes ribereños y de pastizales a áreas agrícolas y la prevención de fuegos naturales en los bosques de P. ponderosa probablemente ha reducido el habitat de anidación de esta especie. El manejo de fuegos planificados en el sotobosque es la técnica más utilizada para reestablecer los ecosistemas de P. ponderosa. Las condiciones creadas por el fuego en las copas de los árboles podrían ser igualmente importante para mantener los sistemas de P. ponderosa, incluyendo la conservación de los hábitats de anidación de M. lewis.