Levels Of Secondary Metabolites Research Articles

Mycorrhizal Symbiosis Can Change the Composition of Secondary Metabolites in Fruits ofSolanum nigrumL.

Solanum nigrum is a common weed in arable land, while being used in traditional medicine around the world due to its remarkable levels of valuable secondary metabolites. Agronomic and biological techniques can alter the production of a specific metabolite by influencing plant growth and metabolism. The effects of colonization with three arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), including Funneliformis mosseae, Rhizoglomus intraradices, and Rhizoglomus fasciculatum, on the chemical composition of S. nigrum fruits were evaluated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. More than 100 different chemical constituents were evaluated by GC-MS. Our study revealed that the levels of phenols (quinic acid), benzenes (hydroquinone), sulfur-containing compounds, lactone and carboxylic acids were improved by R. intraradices. In contrast, hydroxymethylfurfural increased by 68% in R. fasciculatum inoculated with uninoculated S. nigrum plants, and this species was also the most efficient in inducing sugar compounds (D-galactose, lactose, and melezitose). Our results suggest that AMF colonization is an effective biological strategy that can alter the chemical composition and improve the medicinal properties of S. nigrum.

Genetic characterization and evaluation of pigmented maize (Zea mays L.) landraces of the North East Hill Region of India-an established centre of maize diversity

Abstract The North East Hill Region (NEHR) of India is home to diverse maize landraces including pigmented accessions rich in antioxidants and nutritional properties. The present study attempted to characterize a representative collection of this mostly unexplored diversity. Altogether eighty-three local maize landraces from the seven hill states of the NEHR were studied with special emphasis on pigmentation diversity. For the morphological traits, a significant ANOVA indicated the presence of substantial genetic variability for which selection would be fruitful. A number of these accessions were found to have traits that help cope with moisture stress, improve stalk strength and optimize photosynthesis. Principal component analysis studies for the yield attributing traits indicated that ear weight was most variable. The bleaching/histological studies confirmed that anthocyanin pigment when present was always restricted to the aleurone layer of the kernels, typical of blue maize. Quantitative analysis for kernel anthocyanin/phlobaphene content also revealed genetic differences among the accessions. Genetic analysis using the model-based STRUCTURE indicated significant population structuring among the accessions. Specifically, for the pigmentation diversity studies both principal coordinate analysis and neighbour joining methods revealed near concurrent population structuring due in part to the high differentiation of seven of the twenty-one pigmentation specific loci studied. The results obtained provide comprehensive evidence of a significant amount of genetic differentiation among the landraces under study. Landraces are valuable reservoirs of favourable alleles for which selection can be made and, as in this study, identify accessions for breeding maize with enhanced levels of beneficial secondary metabolites.

Introgression of early shoot vigour in wheat modifies root systems, increases competitiveness and provides options for integrated weed management

Abstract Background and aims Weeds are a major biotic stressor impacting crop production. Improving the competitiveness of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) could provide a useful tool in integrated weed management. While wheat typically exhibits conservative early growth, early vigour has been increased through long-term recurrent selection for greater early biomass and leaf area. However, the influence of integrating such vigour into breeding lines for improving competitive ability remains to be explored. Methods In replicated controlled environment experiments, the effect of breeding early shoot vigour on root development and below-ground competitiveness was carefully examined. Physical and chemical characteristics of wheat vigour lines were assessed and compared with commercial cultivars in hydroponics and field soil experiments. Measurements included early root growth, rhizosheath size and growth responses in the presence of annual ryegrass, a major weed in wheat production. Results The vigorous lines exhibited larger leaf widths, increased cell file number, increased total root length and larger rhizosheaths compared with commercial parents. Numerous secondary metabolites with known allelopathic effects on weeds were detected in the roots and the rhizosphere, and significant allelochemical level differences observed between distilled water and soil water extract-treated plants. Although the vigour lines were significantly more competitive than the commercial cultivars against ryegrass, they produced similar levels of phytotoxic secondary metabolites. Conclusion Competition below-ground was strongly suppressive of ryegrass for the more vigorous genotypes suggesting that breeding with shoot vigour had pleiotropic effects on key root traits for below-ground wheat competitiveness.

Impacts of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Metabolites of an Invasive Weed Wedelia trilobata.

The invasive plant Wedelia trilobata benefits in various aspects, such as nutrient absorption and environmental adaptability, by establishing a close symbiotic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). However, our understanding of whether AMF can benefit W. trilobata by influencing its metabolic profile remains limited. In this study, Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was conducted to analyze the metabolites of W. trilobata under AMF inoculation. Metabolomic analysis identified 119 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) between the groups inoculated with AMF and those not inoculated with AMF. Compared to plants with no AMF inoculation, plants inoculated with AMF showed upregulation in the relative expression of 69 metabolites and downregulation in the relative expression of 50 metabolites. AMF significantly increased levels of various primary and secondary metabolites in plants, including amino acids, organic acids, plant hormones, flavonoids, and others, with amino acids being the most abundant among the identified substances. The identified DEMs mapped 53 metabolic pathways, with 7 pathways strongly influenced by AMF, particularly the phenylalanine metabolism pathway. Moreover, we also observed a high colonization level of AMF in the roots of W. trilobata, significantly promoting the shoot growth of this plant. These changes in metabolites and metabolic pathways significantly affect multiple physiological and biochemical processes in plants, such as free radical scavenging, osmotic regulation, cell structure stability, and material synthesis. In summary, AMF reprogrammed the metabolic pathways of W. trilobata, leading to changes in both primary and secondary metabolomes, thereby benefiting the growth of W. trilobata and enhancing its ability to respond to various biotic and abiotic stressors. These findings elucidate the molecular regulatory role of AMF in the invasive plant W. trilobata and provide new insights into the study of its competitive and stress resistance mechanisms.

Blended-protein changes body weight gain and intestinal tissue morphology in rats by regulating arachidonic acid metabolism and secondary bile acid biosynthesis induced by gut microbiota.

The impact of dietary nutrients on body growth performance and the composition of gut microbes and metabolites is well-established. In this study, we aimed to determine whether dietary protein can regulate the physiological indexes and changes the intestinal tissue morphology in rats, and if dietary protein was a crucial regulatory factor for the composition, function, and metabolic pathways of the gut microbiota. A total of thirty male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats (inbred strain, weighted 110 ± 10g) were randomly assigned to receive diets containing animal-based protein (whey protein, WP), plant-based protein (soybean protein, SP), or a blended protein (soybean-whey proteins, S-WP) for a duration of 8weeks. To investigate the effects of various protein supplement sources on gut microbiota and metabolites, we performed a high throughput 16S rDNA sequencing association study and fecal metabolomics profiling on the SD rats. Additionally, we performed analyses of growth indexes, serum biochemical indexes, and intestinal morphology. The rats in S-WP and WP group exhibited a significantly higher body weight and digestibility of dietary protein compared to the SP group (P < 0.05). The serum total protein content of rats in the WP and S-WP groups was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that in SP group, and the SP group exhibited significantly lower (P < 0.05) serum blood glucose levels compared to the other two groups. The morphological data showed the rats in the S-WP group exhibited significantly longer villus height and shallower crypt depth (P < 0.05) than the SP group. The gut microbial diversity of the SP and S-WP groups exhibited a higher level than that of the WP group, and the microbiomes of the WP and S-WP groups are more similar compared to those of the SP group. The Arachidonic acid metabolism pathway is the most significant KEGG pathway when comparing the WP group and the SP group, as well as when comparing the SP group and the S-WP group. The type of dietary proteins exerted a significant impact on the physiological indices of SD rats. Intake of S-WP diet can enhance energy provision, improve the body's digestion and absorption of nutrients, as well as promote intestinal tissue morphology. In addition, dietary protein plays a crucial role in modulating fecal metabolites by regulating the composition of the gut microbiota. Metabolomics analysis revealed that the changes in the levels of arachidonic acid metabolites and secondary bile acid metabolite induced by Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1 and [Eubacterium]_coprostanoligenes_group maybe the primarily causes of intestinal morphological differences.

Penicillium janthinellum: A Potential Producer of Natural Products

Penicillium is a kind of common filamentous fungi yielding high levels of secondary metabolites with diverse structures and attractive activities. Among these fungi, Penicillium janthinellum is a potential producer of secondary metabolites whose natural products have been noticed due to their various chemical structures and biological activities. This review summarizes the sources, distribution, bioactivities and structural characteristics of compounds isolated from P. janthinellum from 1980 to 2023. A total of 153 natural products have been isolated from P. janthinellum, of which 65 were new compounds. The compounds separated from P. janthinellum exhibit diverse skeletal chemical structures, concentrated in the categories of polyketides (40%), alkaloids (31%) and terpenoids (14%). P. janthinellum-derived compounds display attractive biological activities, such as cytotoxic, antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities. These results indicate that P. janthinellum is a potential fungus for producing bioactive secondary metabolites which can be used as precursors for new drugs.

Chemical composition, Insecticidal and antifungal activities of Pinus halepensis mill. and Acacia cyanophylla sp. wood tars

Pyrolysis of plant through the rotative oven is a promising and more eco-friendly way to produce charcoal, tar and pyroligneous acid, and other gaseous products with useful purposes. In this research using the Tar of 2 of the most common species in Tunisia Pinus halepensis and Acacia cyanophylla we tried to prove their Insecticidal and fungal activities. For that we started by assessing the Tars’ secondary metabolites. Both tars presented important rates but P. halepensis tar presented higher levels of secondary metabolites especially flavonoids with 1.92 mg/ml QE comparing to 1.47 mg/ml QE for A. cyanophylla tar. The antioxidant activity and antioxidant capacity of the 2 tars revealed more pronounced antioxidant activity of P. halepensis tar with 89.5% (%DPPH) and 2.91 mg/ml AAE compared to 75.70% (%DPPH) and 2.72 mg/ml AAE for A. cyanophylla tar. The insecticidal activity against Aphis spiraecola showed faster and stronger efficiency of A. cyanophylla tar extract 25% inducing 73.3% mortality within 2 Hours of exposure and reached 100% mortality after 10H. P. halepensis tar extract 75% showed slower response with 73.3% mortality after 6H of exposure. The results of the antifungal activity of P. halepensis tar extract 10% and A. cyanophylla tar extract 0.75% revealed that P. halepensis tar was more inhibiting of the mycelium growth of many fungi including F.solani, F.nyagami and M.nivale with an inhibition rate of 77% but less effective on other like F.rodelens that reached 77% mycelium growth. On the other hand, cyanophylla tar extract 0.75% was less effective with only 30% inhibition rate of Phoma sp. the other fungi had more than 79% mycelium growth.

Bioreactor study of the metabolic repertoire and morphology of actinomycete Streptomyces rimosus ATCC 10970 under various initial concentrations of carbon and nitrogen sources

This work aims at investigating the influence of the initial concentrations of carbon (glucose) and organic nitrogen (yeast extract) sources on Streptomyces rimosus ATCC10970 secondary metabolism in the stirred tank bioreactors. Additionally, glucose utilisation, biomass formation, pH, redox potential and dissolved oxygen levels, and the morphological development of S. rimosus pseudomycelium were studied. Eighteen secondary metabolites were detected by mass spectrometry and identified with the use of the authentic standard, or putatively with the use of literature and database of secondary metabolites. Varied initial yeast extract concentration acted much stronger on the formation of secondary metabolites than glucose did. For example, oxytetracycline was not biosynthesised at high yeast extract concentration while the formation of three other metabolites was enhanced under these conditions. In the case of glucose its increasing initial concentration led to higher secondary metabolite levels with the exception of an unnamed angucycline. High initial yeast extract concentration also drastically changed S. rimosus pseudomycelial morphology from the pelleted to the dispersed one. Ultimately, the cultivation media with the varied initial levels of carbon and nitrogen sources were proved to have the marked effect on S. rimosus secondary metabolism and to be the simplest way to either induce or block the formation of the selected secondary metabolites.

Endophytic fungi in buckwheat seeds: exploring links with flavonoid accumulation.

Buckwheat is a famous edible and medicinal coarse cereal which contain abundant of bioactive flavonoids, such as rutin. In this study, the composition and diversity of endophytic fungi in eight different buckwheat seeds were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing of ITS rDNA. Results showed that, the fungal sequences reads were allocated to 272 OTUs, of them, 49 OTUs were shared in eight buckwheat seeds. These endophytic fungi could be classified into 6 phyla, 19 classes, 41 orders, 79 families, 119 genera, and 191 species. At genus level, Alternaria sp. was the domain fungal endophyte. Besides, fungal endophytes belonged to the genera of Epicocum, Cladosporium, Botrytis, Filbobasidium, Stemphylium, and Vishniacozyma were highly abundant in buckwheat seeds. The total flavonoids and rutin contents in tartary buckwheat cultivars (CQ, XQ, CH, K2) were much higher than those in common buckwheat cultivars (HT, T2, T4, T8). For tartary buckwheat cultivars, the total flavonoids and rutin contents were ranging from 2.6% to 3.3% and 0.9% to 1.3%, respectively. Accordingly, the tartary buckwheat samples displayed stronger antioxidant activity than the common buckwheat. Spearman correlation heat map analysis was successfully found that certain fungal species from the genera of Alternaria, Botryosphaeria, Colletorichum and Diymella exhibited significant positive correlation with flavonoids contents. Results of this study preliminary revealed the fungi-plant interaction relationship at secondary metabolite level, and could provide novel strategy for increasing the flavonoids accumulation of buckwheat seeds, as well as improving their quality.

Phytochemical profile of secondary metabolites in the phloem of mature Pinus pinaster trees attacked by the pine wood nematode

The present study highlights, for the first time, the chemical composition of secondary metabolites (lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds) present in the phloem tissues of infected mature Pinus pinaster Ait. trees (on average 74 years old), which may be potentially determinant in the development of the pine wood nematode (PWN) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. The levels of secondary metabolites in the phloem of infected trees were fairly constant along the height of the trees (an average of 30% dry phloem), but slightly lower compared with total extractives content in the phloem of mature healthy P. pinaster trees (30.0 vs. 39.9%). The hydrophilic fraction represented 91% of the total soluble compounds (27.3% of phloem mass) and it was mainly composed of phenolic compounds and reducing sugars (44.8% and 58.8% of the ethanol-water extracts). The lipophilic fraction (2.7% of phloem mass), was dominated by tricyclic diterpenic compounds (54.2–63.2% of the total lipophilic extracts) and fatty acids. Differences in the relative concentrations of individual compounds were observed compared to healthy pines, suggesting a response to the biotic stress imposed by nematode damage by an increased content of diterpenic resin acids, specifically dehydroabietic and abietic acids, and of total unsaturated fatty acids with a predominance of 9-octadecenoic acid.

Production, Nutritional Value and Toxicity of Kawal, a Fermented Product from the Leaves of Cassia obtusifolia (L.): A Review

Cassia obtusifolia is a plant of the Fabaceae family. Its leaves are eaten as a vegetable in several African countries. In some African countries like Chad and Sudan, the leaves are processed by fermentation in a solid state, called in arabic kawal, which is eaten with cereal couscous. The present study is a literature review on the production of kawal and similar products. The production of kawal remains made by craftsmen. After crushing, the leaves are incubated in a buried jar for a period that varies from 14 to 30 days, sun-dried for 3 to 5 days and are ready for consumption. Kawal has several nutritional benefits. Fermentation of C. obtusifolia leaves increases protein, calcium, magnesium and iron content by 38, 98, 75 and 47% respectively, and reduces the levels of secondary metabolites like polyphenols, tannins and phytic acid by 20, 6 and 47% respectively. Fermentation of C. obtusifolia leaves reduces the levels of secondary metabolites like polyphenols, tannins and phytic acid by 20, 6 and 47% respectively. However, some studies on the effect of kawal on albino rats and chicken’s growth have revealed signs of toxicity manifested through high level of serum transaminases and histopathology of the liver and kidneys. These data show that the fermentation of C. obtusifolia leaves improve nutritional value of this vegetable but does not considerably reduce secondary metabolites which could be considered as antinutrients and might be responsible of the toxicity in albino rats and chickens.

Integrated physiological, transcriptomic, and metabolomic analyses of drought stress alleviation in Ehretia macrophylla Wall. seedlings by SiO2 NPs (silica nanoparticles).

With environmental problems such as climate global warming, drought has become one of the major stress factors, because it severely affects the plant growth and development. Silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) are crucial for mitigating abiotic stresses suffered by plants in unfavorable environmental conditions and further promoting plant growth, such as drought. This study aimed to investigate the effect of different concentrations of SiO2 NPs on the growth of the Ehretia macrophylla Wall. seedlings under severe drought stress (water content in soil, 30-35%). The treatment was started by starting spraying different concentrations of SiO2 NPs on seedlings of Ehretia macrophyla, which were consistently under normal and severe drought conditions (soil moisture content 30-35%), respectively, at the seedling stage, followed by physiological and biochemical measurements, transcriptomics and metabolomics analyses. SiO2 NPs (100 mg·L-1) treatment reduced malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide content and enhanced the activity of antioxidant enzymes under drought stress. Transcriptomic analysis showed that 1451 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the leaves of E. macrophylla seedlings were regulated by SiO2 NPs under drought stress, and these genes mainly participate in auxin signal transduction and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. This study also found that the metabolism of fatty acids and α-linolenic acids may play a key role in the enhancement of drought tolerance in SiO2 NP-treated E. macrophylla seedlings. Metabolomics studies indicated that the accumulation level of secondary metabolites related to drought tolerance was higher after SiO2 NPs treatment. This study revealed insights into the physiological mechanisms induced by SiO2 NPs for enhancing the drought tolerance of plants.

Characterizations of Swelling Granule of Clove Leaf (Syzygium aromaticum L.) Ethanol Extract

Cloves, scientifically known as Syzygium aromaticum L., hold promise as a potential antiulcer remedy due to their rich composition of compounds, including high levels of phenolic compounds such as eugenol, eugenol acetate, and gallic acid. To improve bioavailability in the gastric environment, this study focuses on optimizing and evaluating a swelling granule system derived from clove leaf extract. The granules were produced using wet granulation with Carbopol, HPMC, and their combination as polymer matrices. Results indicated favorable properties in the swelling granules, with the optimal composition of 210 mg Carbopol, 36 mg PVP, and 404 mg Avicel pH 101. These granules exhibited a uniform particle size distribution, with 90.1% below 149 µm and 9.9% distributed across mesh numbers 100, 80, and 40. The formula with Carbopol polymer showed superior flow rate, compressibility, and swelling capacity compared to other formulations. The interaction between Carbopol's C=O groups and HPMC's hydroxyl groups significantly influenced parameters, especially swelling capacity. Thus, when combining polymers, potential chemical or physical reactions should be considered. The wet granulation process effectively preserved secondary metabolite levels from clove leaf. Further tests are recommended to evaluate the granulation's effectiveness as a delivery system for clove leaf extract.

Evaluation of selected agricultural by-products as potential feeds for rearing edible grasshopper, Ruspolia differens (Serville) (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae)

BackgroundCrop residues and agro-industrial by-products constitute an enormous pool of unused and often neglected resources that could be productively utilized for rearing edible insects to meet the global demand for animal-based protein. Utilizing such products as feedstocks can lower the cost of edible insect production and reduce associated environmental pollution.MethodsWe evaluated the biology (survival, developmental duration, and adult fresh weight) of Ruspolia differens reared on eleven locally available agricultural by-products in Uganda, namely; dry maize cob, waste from a locally brewed finger millet drink, cotton seed cake, soybean hull meal, sunflower cake, pumpkin pulp, peelings of unripe banana, cassava, sweet potato, pineapple and pumpkin. Germinated finger millet was used as a control. Newly hatched (1 day old) nymphs were reared individually on each diet until 14 days post adult emergence. The nutritional profiles of the by-products were also determined. General linear models were fitted to analyse whether R. differens performance differed between sexes and among diets. The relationship between R. differens performance and the nutritional profiles of the diets were tested by Pearson correlation coefficient.ResultsOnly three test diets (soybean hull meal, dry maize cob, and the local brew waste) supported survival till the adult stage. Nymphal survival negatively correlated with diets’ crude fibre content (r = − 0.96, p = 0.042). Nymphal development duration significantly differed among the diets, with the shortest duration under soybean hull meal (approx. 138 days) and the longest under the local brew waste (205 days). Nymphal development duration positively correlated with diets’ crude fibre content (r = 0.95, p = 0.022). Adult fresh weight at emergence and 14 days post emergence did not differ across the test diets. Female individuals were ~ 1.3 times heavier than males 14 days post emergence, although both sexes had similar weights at adult emergence. The levels of secondary metabolites in the diets were not associated with any growth performance parameters of R. differens.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that R. differens can thrive and develop on some agricultural by-products. The results could guide the design of R. differens mass-rearing programs using locally available agricultural by-products.

Total Metabolit Sekunder dan Uji Aktivitas Antioksidan Daun Juwet (Syzygium cumini L.) dengan Spektrofotometer Uv-Vis

The aim of this research is to determine the total amount of secondary metabolites (alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins) contained in the ethanol juice of juwet leaves (Syzygium cumini L.) using the UV-Vis spectrophotometry method and to determine the antioxidant activity of the ethanol juice of juwet leaves based on IC50 value. Determination of total levels of secondary metabolites using UV-Vis spectrophotometry and antioxidant testing using the DPPH method. The results of qualitative analysis of the ethanol juice of juwet leaves contained secondary metabolite compounds, namely flavonoids, saponins, tannins and alkaloids. The average value obtained for the level of total secondary metabolites for flavonoid compounds was 0.417% w/w., saponins 0.766 w/w., tannins 0.282 w/w and alkaloids 0.384% w/w. The results of testing the antioxidant activity of juwet leaf ethanol extract and quercetin as a comparison had antioxidant activity, the average IC50 results were 14.289 ± 0.255 ppm and 102.45 ppm, therefore they were classified as moderate antioxidants.

In vitro culture of Atraphaxis frutescens (L.) K. Koch: effects of D-mannitol and pH on a propagation coefficient, secondary-metabolite levels, and antiradical activity

In vitro culture of Atraphaxis frutescens (L.) K. Koch: effects of D-mannitol and pH on a propagation coefficient, secondary-metabolite levels, and antiradical activity

Enhancing antimicrobial and antiviral properties of Cynara scolymus L. waste through enzymatic pretreatment and lactic fermentation

This study explores the potential of Cynara scolymus L. (artichoke) waste as bioactive compounds resource with antimicrobial and antiviral properties. Three extracts were prepared using different methods: an ultrasound-assisted extraction with EtOH:H2O (1:1), an enzymatic pretreatment with Rapidase® Revelation Aroma, and a lactic fermentation for 10 days. The metabolomic profiles were compared using a UHPLC-HR-MS/Orbitrap spectrometer. While all extracts contained as main metabolites apigenin, luteolin, cynarine, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid, enzymatic pretreatment and fermentation resulted in significantly higher levels of secondary metabolites than the untreated waste extract. The results of antimicrobial and antiviral activities indicated that only pretreated and fermented extracts exhibited activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and HSV-2 virus. These findings suggest that enzymatic pretreatment and lactic fermentation here used for the first time on artichoke waste could improve the bioactivity of its extracts, highlighting the use of C. scolymus by-products as a source of potential antimicrobial and antiviral constituents.

Metabolic Profiling and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Melatonin-Induced Secondary Metabolism of Postharvest Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum L.).

Postharvest decay of goji berries, mainly caused by Alternaria alternata, results in significant economic losses. To investigate the effects of melatonin (MLT) on resistance to Alternaria rot in goji berries, the fruits were immersed in the MLT solutions with varying concentrations (0, 25, 50, and 75 μmol L-1) and then inoculated with A. alternata. The results showed that the fruits treated with 50 μmol L-1 MLT exhibited the lowest disease incidence and least lesion diameter. Meanwhile, endogenous MLT in the fruits treated with 50 μmol L-1 MLT showed higher levels than in the control fruits during storage at 4 ± 0.5 °C. Further, the enzymatic activities and expressions of genes encoding peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, cinnamate 4-hydroxylase, 4-coumarate-CoA ligase, chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase, and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase were induced in the treated fruit during storage. UPLC-ESI-MS/MS revealed that secondary metabolites in the fruits on day 0, in order of highest to lowest levels, were rutin, p-coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, naringenin, quercetin, kaempferol, and protocatechuic acid. MLT-treated fruits exhibited higher levels of secondary metabolites than the control. In conclusion, MLT treatment contributed to controlling the postharvest decay of goji fruit during storage by boosting endogenous MLT levels, thus activating the antioxidant system and secondary metabolism.

Concentration-dependent effect of plant secondary metabolites on bacterial and fungal microbiomes in caterpillar guts.

The caterpillar gut is an excellent model system for studying host-microbiome interactions, as it represents an extreme environment for microbial life that usually has low diversity and considerable variability in community composition. Our study design combines feeding caterpillars on a natural and artificial diet with controlled levels of plant secondary metabolites and uses metabarcoding and quantitative PCR to simultaneously profile bacterial and fungal assemblages, which has never been performed. Moreover, we focus on multiple caterpillar species and consider diet breadth. Contrary to many previous studies, our study suggested the functional importance of certain microbial taxa, especially bacteria, and confirmed the previously proposed lower importance of fungi for caterpillar holobiont. Our study revealed the lack of differences between monophagous and polyphagous species in the responses of microbial assemblages to plant secondary metabolites, suggesting the limited role of the microbiome in the plasticity of the herbivore diet.

FORMULATION AND STABILITY OF STERILE GEL OF AGARWOOD LEAVES EXTRACT (Gyrinops Versteeg (Gilg.) Domke) FOR DIABETIC WOUNDS

Agarwood leaves contain high levels of secondary metabolites due to increased metabolic processes in agarwood trees infected with fungi. Through this metabolic process, leaves contain secondary metabolites, flavonoids, and tannins. This causes agarwood leaves to have potential as an anti-inflammatory agent for treating diabetic wounds, aimed to formulate a sterile gel preparation of agarwood leaf extract and evaluate its quality, including sterility tests and stability tests (cycling tests) including organoleptic tests, homogeneity, spreadability, adhesive power, viscosity, and pH. A sterile gel formula was prepared with an extract concentration of 4% and variations of Carbopol 940 (gelling agent), namely 0.75%, 1.0%, and 1.25%. The results showed that F1, F2, and F3 were sterile and free of bacterial and fungal growth. The stability test before and after the cycling test in organoleptic tests F1, F2, and F3 were brown, had a distinctive odor of gaharu leaves, and had a soft texture. The homogeneity tests F1, F2, and F3 Homogeneous. The pH values before the cycling test were F1 5.63, F2 4.55, and F3 4.57, whereas after the cycling test, they were F1 5.05, F2 4.87, and F3 4.63. Adhesion time before cycling test F1 02.97 seconds, F2 03.15 seconds, F3 04.86 seconds while after cycling test F1 02.64 seconds, F2 03.04 seconds, F3 03.08 seconds. Spreadability test before cycling test F1 5.4 cm, F2 4.6 cm, F3 3.7 cm, while after cycling test F1 5.0 cm, F2 4.7 cm, F3 3.5 cm ...