Dietary Sodium Levels Research Articles

The optimal dietary sodium and chloride level for broiler chicks fed a corn-soybean meal diet between 1 and 21 days of age.

The experiment was conducted to estimate the ideal dietary sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) level for broilers during d 1 to 21 using a corn-soybean meal diet under a dietary Na:Cl ratio of 1:1. A total of 490 one-d-old Arbor Acres male broilers were randomly allotted by bodyweight to 1 of 7 treatments in a completely randomized design. Each treatment consisted of 7 replicate cages with 10 chicks per cage. Broilers were fed a Na and Cl-unsupplemented corn-soybean meal basal diet (control, containing 0.02% Na and 0.08% Cl) and the Na and Cl-supplemented basal diets containing 0.14%, 0.20%, 0.26%, 0.32%, 0.38% and 0.44% Na and Cl levels, respectively for 21 d. The results indicated that average daily gain, average daily feed intake, blood partial pressure of CO2 and concentrations of HCO3-, total CO2, Na+, Cl-, base excess and anion gap, tibial ash and ash Na contents of broilers were affected (P < 0.001) by dietary Na and Cl level, and increased linearly (P < 0.001) and quadratically (P < 0.001) with increasing Na and Cl levels. Feed/gain ratio, mortality, blood K+ concentration, serum osmotic pressure and K+, glucose and uric acid concentrations as well as heart, liver and kidney indices of broilers were affected (P < 0.01) by dietary Na and Cl level, and decreased linearly (P < 0.001) and quadratically (P < 0.001) with increasing Na and Cl levels. The estimates of dietary optimal Na and Cl levels were 0.07%-0.16% according to the best fitted broken-line or asymptotic models (P < 0.001) of the above sensitive indicators. Therefore, the optimal dietary Na and Cl level was suggested to be 0.16% to support all of the above Na and Cl metabolic requirements of broilers fed the corn-soybean meal diet during d 1 to 21, which is lower than the recommendation at 0.20% by the Chinese Feeding Standard of Chicken (2004).

Moderating effect of a sodium-rich diet on the association between long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and blood lipids in children and adolescents

BackgroundSeveral studies reported that exposure to higher levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) was associated with deteriorated lipid profiles in children and adolescents. However, whether a sodium-rich diet could modify the associations remains unknown. We aimed to examine the associations of long-term exposure to PM2.5 with blood lipids in children and adolescents, and further examine the effect modification by dietary and urinary sodium levels based on a multi-community population in China.MethodsThe 3711 study participants were from a cross-sectional study, which interviewed children and adolescents aged 6 to 17 years across Sichuan Province, China between 2015 and 2017. Blood lipid outcomes including blood total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and triglycerides (TG) were assessed. Information on daily dietary sodium consumption was estimated with a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), and urinary sodium was used as an internal exposure biomarker. A linear regression model was applied to estimate the associations of prior 2-years’ average exposure to ambient PM2.5 with blood lipids. The effect modification by dietary and urinary sodium was examined by stratified analyses.ResultsThe participants from rural areas had higher levels of daily sodium consumptions. The results of multivariable regression analysis indicated that per 10 μg/m3 incremental change in PM2.5 was associated with a 1.56% (95% confidence interval 0.90%—2.23%) and a 2.26% (1.15%—3.38%) higher blood TC and LDL-C levels, respectively. Among the study participants with higher levels of dietary sodium or urinary sodium, exposure to higher levels of PM2.5 was significantly associated with deteriorated lipid profiles. For example, each 10 μg/m3 incremental change in exposure to PM2.5 was correlated with a 2.83 (-4.65 to -0.97) lower percentage decrease in blood HDL-C levels among the participants who were from the highest quartile of urinary sodium levels. While, these associations changed to be nonsignificant in the participants who were from the lowest quartile of dietary sodium levels.ConclusionExposure to higher levels of PM2.5 was associated with deteriorated blood lipid levels in children and adolescents. It is noteworthy that these associations might be ameliorated through the adoption of a low-sodium dietary regimen.

Dietary sodium intake and outcomes: a secondary analysis from SODIUM - HF

Abstract Background Sodium restriction is common advice provided to patients with heart failure, however, evidence from the SODIUM-HF trial and a subsequent meta-analysis failed to show a beneficial effect of dietary sodium restriction on outcomes. Purpose This secondary analysis of SODIUM HF is aimed to assess association between baseline dietary sodium intake, the change in dietary sodium at 6 months and a composite of cardiovascular hospitalization, emergency department visit, and all-cause death at 12 and 24 months. Methods Multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression model was used to assess association of dietary sodium level measured at randomization with primary and secondary endpoints. Adjusted Hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals were presented. A responder analysis also explored the achieved dietary sodium at 6 months with subsequent risk for clinical outcomes. Results 792 participants were included. At baseline, sodium intake was ≤ 1500 mg/day in 19.9% (n = 158), &amp;gt;1500-3000 mg/day in 56.5% (n = 448) and &amp;gt;3000 mg/day in 23.4% (n= 186) of the participants. Women, older patients, and those with lower glomerular filtration rate and higher ejection fraction were more often represented in the group with sodium intake ≤1500 mg/day; conversely, diabetes, prior smoking, use of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, and ICD were observed in the groups of higher sodium intake levels (&amp;gt;3000 mg/day)(Table 1). Cox proportional hazard regression analysis showed no association between sodium level (per doubling) at baseline with clinical outcomes (all associations p=ns), however, adjusted models exhibited a trend towards a decreased risk of CV hospitalizations at 2 years. In the responder analysis, a trend towards a decreased adjusted risk for composite outcome and CV hospitalizations at 1 year in those achieving a sodium level &amp;lt;1500 mg at 6 months was observed (Table 2). Adjusted Cox proportional hazard regression analysis showed no association for 1- and 2-year outcomes per 500 mg increase in absolute difference in sodium level between baseline and 6 months. Conclusion In SODIUM HF, there was no association between sodium level at baseline with clinical outcomes at any time point but there is a trend towards a decreased risk of CV hospitalizations at 2 years and in patients achieving &amp;lt;1500 mg / day by 6 months, a trend towards fewer subsequent clinical events was present. This finding should be explored via a prospective clinical trial.Baseline characteristics of populationOutcomes

Abstract P338: ASSOCIATION OF HYPERTENSION AND FOOD INSECURITY WITH DIETARY SODIUM AND POTASSIUM IN ADULTS

Food insecurity (FIS), the lack of consistent access to nutritious food is a risk factor for HTN and leads to poorer health outcomes. Although studies show a higher prevalence of HTN in patients living with FIS, there is limited data exploring the underlying mechanism. Using dietary recall data, we sought to evaluate the relationship between HTN and FIS. We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 16,703 adults aged between 18 and 65 years who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey between 2011 and 2018. We excluded pregnant participants. We examined the association between FIS, HTN, and dietary sodium and potassium levels using univariate and multivariate analysis. Adults who reported FIS were more likely to have HTN (aOR=1.22, 95% CI: 1.02-1.46, p=0.029). Non-Hispanic Blacks participants were more likely to have HTN than Non-Hispanic Whites (aOR=1.74, 95% CI: 1.54-1.96, p&lt;0.001) while Hispanic participants were more likely to have lower BP (aOR=0.82, 95% CI: 0.71-0.94, p=0.007). The prevalence of FIS was higher among Non-Hispanic Black (28.8%) (aOR= 1.28, 95% CI= 1.02-1.61, p&lt;0.01) and Hispanic participants (33.5%) (aOR= 1.67, 95% CI= 1.33-2.09, p&lt;0.01) compared to Non-Hispanic White. Individuals living in food-insecure households had a higher prevalence of obesity (23.7%) compared to adults who lived in food secure households. (18.4% for normal weight and 17.9% for overweight; p &lt; 0.01). The prevalence of hypertension increased with age, peaking in the 60-65 age group (p&lt;0.001). Individuals who reported FIS had a significantly lower mean intake of sodium (3.57 ± 0.04 gm) and potassium (2.5 ± 0.03 gm) compared to individuals living in food secure households (3.69 ± 0.02 gm and 2.74 ± 0.02 gm, respectively; p &lt; 0.01 for both). We found that for every 1 gm increase in dietary sodium, the odds of HTN increased by 1% (p&lt;0.01). For every 1 gm increase in dietary potassium the odds of HTN decreased by 9% and the odds of living in a food insecure household decreased by 16%. Adults with a lower dietary potassium intake were more likely to report FIS and have HTN. Increasing assess to healthy foods, particularly foods rich in sources of potassium, for individuals living with FIS, may reduce the prevalence of HTN and lead to better cardiovascular outcomes.

Sex influences blood pressure but not blood pressure variability in response to dietary sodium and potassium in salt-resistant adults.

Dietary sodium and potassium have been shown to affect blood pressure (BP) but their influence on BP variability (BPV) is less studied as is the influence of sex. The aim of this study was to compare 24 h BP and short-term BPV in response to varying dietary levels of sodium and potassium in healthy non-obese normotensive salt-resistant adults. We hypothesized that high sodium would increase short-term BP and BPV while the addition of high potassium would counteract this increase. Furthermore, we hypothesized that women would experience greater increases in BPV under high sodium conditions compared to men while potassium would attenuate this response. Thirty-seven participants (17 M/20 W; 27 ± 5 years old; BMI 24.3 ± 3 kg/m2) completed seven days each of the following randomized diets: moderate potassium/low sodium (MK/LS), moderate potassium/high sodium (MK/HS) and high potassium/high sodium (HK/HS). BP and short-term BPV were assessed using 24 h ambulatory BP monitoring starting on day 6. BPV was calculated using the average real variability (ARV) index. Twenty-four hour, daytime, and nighttime systolic BP (SBP) were lower in women compared to men regardless of diet. However, 24 h and daytime SBP were lowered in women on the HK/HS diet compared to the MK/HS diet. There were no significant effects of diet or sex for 24 h, daytime or nighttime SBP ARV. However, men exhibited a higher 24hDBP ARV than women regardless of diet. In conclusion, a high potassium diet lowered BP under high sodium conditions in women alone while men exhibited higher short-term BPV that was not influenced by diet.

DIETARY SODIUM/POTASSIUM INTAKE AND COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT IN ELDERLY PATIENTS WITH HYPERTENSION: DATA FROM NHANES 2011-2014

Objective: This study aimed to assess the relationship between dietary sodium/ potassium intake and cognition in elderly individuals with hypertension. Design and method: We designed a cross-sectional study based on the 2011–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Cognitive performance was assessed using the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease test (CERAD), and Animal Fluency Test (AFT). Multivariate logistic regression and restricted cubic spline (RCS) was used to assess the relationship between dietary sodium/ potassium intake and cognition. Results: After excluding participants with incomplete data, 1670 out of 2276 participants had confirmed hypertension. Compared with the lowest quartile of dietary sodium, the lowest weighted odds ratio (OR) of cognitive impairment in DSST was observed in Q4 (OR = 0.45, 0.29–0.70), and a similar trend was observed in AFT (OR = 0.34, 0.18–0.65). After adjusting the covariates, the lowest weighted multivariate adjusted OR of cognitive impairment in DSST were also observed in Q4 (OR = 0.47, 0.26–0.84) compared with the lowest quartile of dietary sodium. The RCS results showed that dietary sodium was U-shaped and associated with the risk of cognitive impairment in the DSST (Pnon–linearity = 0.0067). No significant association was observed between dietary potassium and cognitive performance. Conclusions: Too high and too low dietary sodium levels were associated with impairment of specific processing speed, sustained attention, and working memory for hypertension among the elderly in the United States. However, no association was observed between the dietary potassium intake and cognition.

Model Development for Reducing Sodium Consumption at the District Level Using a District Health Board Mechanism

High levels of dietary sodium are associated with hypertension and non-communicable diseases. We aimed to develop a model for reducing sodium consumption at the district level using a mechanism developed by the District Health Board (DHB). Hankha District in Chai Nat Province was selected as the study area. The study was conducted between June and December 2022. Research methods included the development of a model to reduce sodium consumption, questionnaires and focus group discussions, and measuring the amount of salt in food and blood pressure levels among study participants. The developed model comprised three measures; monitoring people’s sodium consumption; creating a mechanism for driving and managing the environment contributing to behavioral changes; and providing knowledge and promoting behaviors among groups at high risk for hypertension. After model development, the mean knowledge scores among DHB members and their skills in managing plans and projects were significantly higher than those before the process. Mean knowledge scores, health literacy and proper sodium consumption behaviors among at-risk groups were also higher. In addition, the increased knowledge scores significantly correlated with proper sodium consumption behaviors. Our results should encourage authorities at the policy level to apply a DHB mechanism to reduce sodium consumption in communities.

Salty and umami tastes perception in hypertensive patients and its relationship to dietary sodium intake

Background: Reducing the dietary sodium intake is one of the most important factors for controlling blood pressure. The changes that occur in perceiving saltiness and umami tastes in people with hypertension can be associated with the level of sodium intake. The aim of this study was to investigate the gustatory perception of these two tastes in patients with hypertension and its association with the level of dietary sodium consumed by these patients. Material and methods: In this case control study, 40 patients with hypertension and 40 healthy individuals were chosen. The blood pressure was measured for both groups. The power of perceiving saltiness and umami tastes was investigated using sodium chloride and monosodium glutamate solutions respectively both with concentrations of 200 mmol/lit. The individuals specified the power of each taste along a 10-number criterion. Based on the compounds of foods in Iran, the level of sodium consumed per day was calculated by food frequency questionnaire. The data were analyzed by Mann-Whitney, Pearson, Spearman tests. Results: The mean saltiness perception in the control and case group was 5/8 and 6/6 respectively(p &lt; 0/05) and the mean umami perception the control and case group was 5/5 and 7/6 respectively (p &lt; 0/05). There was an inverse relationship between the level of sodium intake and perceived intensity of saltiness perceptionin case group (p &lt; 0.05).The level of sodium intake had no relationship with perceived intensity of umami taste in none of the groups (p &gt; 0.05). There was also a direct relationship between blood pressure and intensity of perceiving umami taste in case group (p &lt; 0.05).However, no significant relationship was found between blood pressure and the intensity of perceiving saltiness (p &gt; 0.05). Conclusion: Perceived intensity of saltiness perception in case group higher than control group also perceived intensity of umami perception in case group higher than control group. With increase in the blood pressure, the power of perceiving saltiness and umami increases; with increase in sodium intake, saltiness perception diminishes, but umami perception is left unaffected.

Sodium in processed meats produced by local butcheries in Tshwane, South Africa

The common use of sodium in different compositions, is as a preservative, for colouring, curing, flavouring and as a binding agent in processed meats, it is also used for improved shelf life and distinct palatability. Even with modern food processing methods, sodium is still essential in manufacturing of meat derivatives. Continuous consumption of high sodium diets is associated with adverse chronic health effects, such as cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, stroke, cancers, among others, which have been on the rise. As a result, there has been a global drive by organisations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) to advise member states to reduce dietary sodium levels in various foods, including processed meats. Consequently, South Africa promulgated the first sodium reduction regulations in Africa by 2013, intended to reduce sodium in certain foodstuffs, including processed meat products. The objectives of this study were to determine (1) the level of sodium in processed meats produced by local butcheries in the City of Tshwane (CoT), Gauteng, South Africa and (2) to compare the amount of sodium in processed meats, determined using the two South African legislated methods, namely Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). A cross-sectional approach with qualitative and experimental dimensions approach was followed. Processed meat production records obtained from randomly selected butcheries in CoT (122) revealed that the top six commonly produced processed meats were boerewors (90.2 %), braaiwors (87.7 %), biltong (86.9 %), drywors (62.3 %), viennas (45.9 %) and burger patties (43.5 %). Subsequently, sampling (n=396) of the top six products from 66 randomly selected butcheries was done. The findings of the study revealed that processed meats analysed using ICP-AES and FAAS contained mean sodium levels of 1449 mg/100 g and 649 mg/100 g, respectively (p&lt;0.0001), which were higher than the South African legal sodium limits. The concentration of sodium of products determined using ICP-AES (64.7 - 9201 mg/100 g) was significantly (p&lt;0.0001) higher than in the same products analysed using FAAS (35.4 - 2351 mg/100 g). From the findings of this study, sodium reduction requires a concerted effort in enforcing the South African mandatory sodium limits in local butcheries in processed meats. The results of legislated sodium test methods must be comparable to ensure equal level of compliance. Key words: meat products, sodium reduction, processed food, processed meat, sodium limits

Dietary protein and sodium co‐limit cockroach growth and reproduction

Abstract Both dietary protein (N) and sodium (Na) are essential nutrients for invertebrate growth and reproduction. Field studies show that insects aggregate in areas with both high protein and sodium and their abundance is co‐limited by these two essential nutrients, but the mechanism behind this aggregation is not well known. We examined a possible mechanism that dietary protein and sodium co‐limit insect herbivore growth and reproduction. To test this mechanism, we conducted a feeding experiment examining the effect of these two nutrients by using artificial diets with two levels of protein and three levels of sodium on a generalist herbivorous cockroach Blaptica dubia. Elevated levels of dietary sodium interacted with low protein level to increase cockroach nymph relative growth rate during earlier instars. Female cockroaches always weighed more and had a higher relative growth rate than males regardless of dietary treatment. When compared between different dietary treatments, female cockroaches' relative growth rates were higher when fed with a high protein diet, while male cockroaches reached the final instar faster when fed with a high sodium diet. Cockroach reproduction was not affected by protein or sodium alone, but the combination of a high protein and high sodium diet resulted in the heaviest offspring. Our results suggest that both protein and sodium may be important for both the growth and reproduction of insect herbivores. The interaction of these two nutrients to improve cockroach growth and reproduction indicate a level of co‐limitation.

PSVI-1 Effect of Dietary Sodium and Pharmacological Zinc Levels on Growth Performance of Nursery Pigs

Abstract A total of 360 pigs (initially 5.7±0.2 kg) were used to determine the effect of pharmacological levels of Zn and dietary Na concentration on nursey pig growth performance. The experiment compared NRC (2012) and European CVB (2020) Na estimates for this weight range (0.35% and 0.24%, respectively), with or without added Zn from ZnO. At weaning, pigs were randomly allotted to pens (6 pigs/pen) and fed a common diet for 7 d. On d-7 after weaning (d-0 of trial), pigs were assigned to 6 dietary treatments with 10 replications/treatment. Dietary treatments were arranged in a 2×3 factorial with main effects of Zn (0 or 2,000 ppm from ZnO) and Na (0.13, 0.24, or 0.35% from salt). All diets contained 110 ppm of Zn from the trace mineral premix. Following a 14-d experimental period, pigs were fed a common phase 3 diet for 21-d. There were no Zn×Na interactions for ADG or ADFI (P &amp;gt;0.05). From d 0-14, adding dietary ZnO or increasing Na increased (linear, P &amp;lt; 0.05) ADG and ADFI. An interaction for G:F (linear, P = 0.019) was observed where increasing Na up to 0.35% improved G:F when pharmacological levels of Zn were fed, but pigs fed diets without ZnO had a quadratic response (P =0.024) with maximum G:F at 0.24% dietary Na. From d 14-35 and overall, an interaction was observed (linear, P &amp;lt; 0.05) for G:F. Within the interaction, pigs previously fed diets without ZnO observed a linear decrease in G:F as Na level increased (linear, P =0.001), but pigs previously fed diets with ZnO observed no difference in G:F with increasing Na. In summary, increasing dietary Na and the addition of 2,000 ppm Zn from ZnO independently improved daily gain and feed intake in nursery pigs, but an improvement in G:F from increasing Na up to 0.35% was only observed when pharmacological ZnO was present.

Sex Differences in Blood Pressure Variability in response to Sodium and Potassium Diets

It is well established that Americans consume more salt than recommended by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. High sodium diets have been shown to increase blood pressure (BP) while dietary potassium is known for its BP lowering properties. Elevated BP variability (BPV), as indicated by spontaneous fluctuations in BP, is associated with cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Although no recommendations exist for targeting elevated BPV, understanding how different dietary components affect BPV could be important to reduce CVD. Limited literature from rodent and human studies suggests a relation between a high sodium diet and an increased BPV. Additionally, mechanisms regulating BP between men and women differ which may lead to the hypothesis that BPV differs as well. Thus, the interactive effects of dietary sodium and potassium on BPV in humans are unknown as well as whether potential sex differences exist. The purpose of this study was to compare BP and BPV responses to varying dietary levels of sodium and potassium in salt-resistant, healthy, normotensive young adults. Twenty women (27±1 yrs. old; SBP: 112±3 mmHg; DBP: 71±1 mmHg; BMI: 24.1±0.7 kg/m2) and 17 men (26±1 yrs. old; SBP: 117±3 mmHg; DBP: 75±2 mmHg; BMI: 24.4±0.7 kg/m2) completed 7 days each of the following diets: moderate potassium/low sodium diet (65 mmol potassium/50 mmol sodium; MK/LS), a moderate potassium/high sodium diet (65 mmol potassium/300 mmol sodium; MK/HS) and a high potassium/high sodium (120 mmol potassium/300 mmol sodium; HK/HS) in random order. BP and BPV were calculated from 24 h ambulatory BP monitoring on day 6 of each diet. Average Real Variability (ARV) was used as an index of BPV. A mixed-model ANOVA was performed with a Tukey post hoc test with diet as a within subject factor and sex as a between subject factor to determine whether differences existed between men and women on each diet. For 24 h SBP, the main effect of sex was significant (p=0.01) and the sex*diet interaction was significant (p=0.03) such that men had a higher 24 h SBP than women on the HK/HS diet (117±2 mmHg vs 112±1 mmHg, p=0.02). On the MK/LS and MK/HS diets, 24 h SBP was not different between men and women (p>0.05). For 24 h DBP, the main effect of diet was significant (p=0.009) such that 24 h DBP was higher on the MK/LS diet vs HK/HS diet (69±1 mmHg vs 67±1 mmHg, p=0.01) and higher on MK/LS diet compared to MK/HS diet regardless of sex (69±1 mmHg vs 68±1 mm Hg, p=0.02). For 24 h SBP ARV, the main effects of diet and sex and the interaction of sex*diet were not significant (all p>0.05). For 24 h DBP ARV, the main effect of sex was significant (p=0.006) such that men had higher variability regardless of diet (9±0.2 mmHg vs 7±0.2 mm Hg). Our results suggest that in the context of a high sodium diet, potassium may help lower BP in women but not in men. In addition, men tended to have a higher BPV compared to women regardless of the diet. Future studies are warranted to further study the differential response of men and women to the effectiveness of dietary interventions for reducing CVD risk.

The effect of different dietary levels of sodium and chloride on performance, blood parameters and excreta quality in goslings at 29 to 70 days of age.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the appropriate levels of dietary sodium (Na+ ) and chloride (Cl- ) for 29- to 70-day-old goslings and to investigate the effects of different levels of Na+ and Cl- on the growth performance, water consumption, blood parameters and excreta quality of goslings to provide a reference for the healthy production of goslings. In Experiment 1, a total of 432 29-day-old male Jiangnan White goslings were randomly allotted to nine treatments according to a 3×3 factorial design, with six pens containing eight birds per treatment. The goslings were fed diets with three concentrations of Na+ (0.10%, 0.15% and 0.20%) and three concentrations of Cl- (0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25%). The experimental period was 42days. In Experiment 2, a total of 24 70-day-old Jiangnan White goslings were selected for four treatments (0.10% Na+ ×0.15% Cl- ; 0.10% Na+ ×0.25% Cl- ; 0.20% Na+ ×0.15% Cl- and 0.20% Na+ ×0.25% Cl- ) and housed separately in metabolic cages. The faeces were collected for 3 consecutive days. In Experiment 1, the average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed/gain (F/G) ratio of goslings were unaffected by the treatments. However, low levels of Na+ and Cl- significantly reduced the water consumption of goslings in the later growth period (p<0.05). The average water consumption of goslings fed with 0.10% Na+ ×0.15% Cl- was significantly lower than that of the goslings fed with 0.20% Na+ ×0.25% Cl- (56days, 1304.2ml vs. 1471.7ml; 63days, 1452.8ml vs. 1610.8ml; 70days, 1540.0ml vs. 1775.4ml; p<0.05). The interaction between Na+ and Cl- (Na+ ×Cl- ) had a significant impact on the blood haemoglobin (HGB) and haematocrit (HCT) levels in the goslings (p<0.05). HGB increased linearly with increasing levels of Na+ . HGB and HCT first increased and then decreased with increasing levels of Cl- . In Experiment 2, Na+ and Cl- levels had significant effects on the excreta moisture content (p<0.05). Goslings fed with 0.10% Na+ ×0.15% Cl- had a low moisture content of 5.58% compared to the goslings fed with 0.20% Na+ ×0.25% Cl- (87.51% vs. 93.09%; p<0.05). The levels of dietary Na+ had a significant effect on the retention ratio of Na (p<0.05), with the value for the 0.20% Na+ group being significantly higher than that for the 0.10% Na+ group (p<0.05). In summary, different levels of Na+ and Cl- did not affect the growth of goslings. To reduce the water consumption and moisture content of excreta, the Na+ and Cl- levels in the diet can be as low as 0.10% and 0.15%, respectively.

Dietary sodium levels affect grasshopper growth and performance

AbstractAnthropogenic activities are increasing terrestrial sodium availability through application of both saline irrigation water and road salt. Sodium often limits herbivore abundance, but less is known about the physiological, developmental, and behavioral means by which moderate increases in sodium availability can increase herbivore fitness. Here, we raised a grasshopper species on three no‐choice diets of wheatgrass watered with no sodium (control), a 1% (medium) sodium solution, and a 5% (high) sodium solution to examine the effects of sodium intake on grasshopper survival, morphology, and jumping performance. Grasshopper nymphs raised on a high sodium diet had lower weights and reduced survival compared to those raised on control or medium sodium diets. However, nymphs on a high sodium diet developed larger eye size standardized by body size and demonstrated increased jumping distance compared to nymphs on the control or medium sodium diets. As adults, grasshoppers on the medium sodium diet had the highest survival and grasshoppers on the high sodium diet had the least amount of cannibalism of the three treatments. Understanding the response of herbivore fitness to increasing diet sodium content is an important first step toward predicting how anthropogenic inputs of sodium into terrestrial systems will alter food webs.

Dietary supplementation with sodium bicarbonate or sodium sulfate affects eggshell quality by altering ultrastructure and components in laying hens

Dietary sodium (Na) levels were related to the content of the eggshell matrix. We therefore speculated that dietary Na supplementation as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) or sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) may improve eggshell quality. Additionally, dietary NaHCO3 or Na2SO4 supplementation may further affect eggshell quality in different ways due to differences in anions. This study investigated and compared the effects of dietary Na supplementation in either NaHCO3 or Na2SO4 form on laying performance, eggshell quality, ultrastructure and components in laying hens. A total of 576 29-week-old Hy-Line Brown laying hens were randomly allocated to 8 dietary treatments that were fed a Na-deficient basal diet (0.07% Na, 0.15% Cl) supplemented with Na2SO4 or NaHCO3 at 0.08, 0.18, 0.23 or 0.33% Na for 12 weeks. No differences were observed in laying production performance with dietary Na supplementation. Dietary Na supplementation resulted in quadratic increases of eggshell breaking strength in both Na2SO4 and NaHCO3 added groups (P < 0.05), and Na2SO4-fed groups had a quadratic increase in the eggshell ratio at week 12 (P < 0.05). Compared with supplementing 0.08% Na, dietary supplementation of 0.23% Na increased the effective thickness (P < 0.05) in both Na2SO4 and NaHCO3 added groups, but decreased the thickness and knob width of the mammillary layer (P < 0.05). A linear increase on the calcium content of the shell was only observed with Na supplementation from NaHCO3 (P < 0.05). No differences were observed in Na contents of the shell with dietary Na supplemented by both sources. Dietary Na addition had a quadratic increase on uronic acid contents of shell membrane in NaHCO3-fed groups (P < 0.05). Moreover, the sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) contents of shell membranes increased linearly with dietary Na supplementation (P < 0.05). Dietary supplementation of 0.23% Na from Na2SO4 increased the sulfated GAG contents of calcified eggshell (P < 0.05). Additionally, compared with NaHCO3-fed groups, Na2SO4-fed groups had higher eggshell breaking strength, thickness, eggshell weight ratio, effective thickness and the sulfated GAG contents of calcified eggshell at week 12. Overall, dietary supplementation of NaHCO3 or Na2SO4 could increase eggshell breaking strength, which may be related to increased sulfated GAG contents in eggshell membranes and improved ultrastructure. Higher eggshell breaking strength, thickness and eggshell ratio could be obtained when the diet was supplemented with 0.23% Na from Na2SO4.

Spot Urine Samples to Estimate Na and K Intake in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease and Healthy Adults: A Secondary Analysis From a Controlled Feeding Study

The objective of this study was to assess the agreement between estimated 24-hour urinary sodium excretion (e24hUNa) and estimated 24-hour urinary potassium excretion (e24hUK), calculated from a spot urine sample using several available equations and actual sodium and potassium intake from a controlled diet in both healthy participants and those with chronic kidney disease (CKD). This study is a secondary analysis of a controlled feeding study in CKD patients matched to healthy controls. Participants (n=16) consumed the controlled diet, which provided ∼2400mg Na/day and ∼3000mgK/day, for 8days. On days 7 and 8, participants consumed all meals and collected all urine in an inpatient research setting, and they were discharged on day 9. The day 7 morning spot urine sample was used to calculate e24hUNa and e24hUK, which was compared with known sodium and potassium intake, respectively. Average e24hUNa from the INTERSALT and Tanaka-Na equations were higher than actual sodium intake by 373mg and 559mg, respectively, though the differences were not significant. e24hUNa from the Nerbass-SALTED equation in CKD participants was significantly higher than actual sodium intake by ∼2000mg (P<.001), though e24hUNa from the Nerbass-RRID equation was not different from intake. e24hUK from the Tanaka-K equation was significantly lower than actual potassium intake (P<.001). For both e24hUNa and e24hUK for all participants, agreement with actual intake was poor, and e24hUNa and e24hUK were not correlated with actual sodium or potassium intake, respectively. e24hUNa and e24hUK are poor indicators of true sodium and potassium intake, respectively, in both healthy and CKD participants. Findings should be confirmed in larger sample sizes with varying levels of dietary sodium and potassium.

Effect of urinary angiotensinogen and high-salt diet on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease: results from the Korean Cohort Study for Outcome in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease (KNOW-CKD).

Background/AimsThis study aimed to investigate whether urinary angiotensinogen (UAGT) excretion was associated with elevated blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and to evaluate the relationship among blood pressure, intra-renal renin-angiotensin system (RAS) activity, and dietary sodium in patients with CKD.MethodsParticipants from the Korean Cohort Study for Outcome in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease (KNOW-CKD) were included. Of the total cohort of 2,238 individuals with CKD, we included 1,955 participants who underwent complete 24-hour urinary sodium (24-hour UNa) analysis. They were categorized into three groups according to three tertiles of their 24-hour UNa, reflecting daily salt intake. To measure intra-renal RAS activity, the UAGT excretion was assayed with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.ResultsElevated 24-hour UNa levels, logarithm of UAGT-to-creatinine ratio (UAGT/Cr), increased waist-to-hip ratio, and decreased estimated glomerular filtration rate were the risk factors for increased systolic blood pressure. Systolic blood pressure showed a positive correlation with 24-hour UNa levels and logarithm of UAGT/Cr.ConclusionsUAGT and urinary sodium excretion are independent determinants of systolic blood pressure in patients with CKD. These findings suggest that increased systolic blood pressure in CKD patients is associated with both increased dietary sodium levels and intra-renal RAS activity. The risk of elevated systolic blood pressure in the 3rd tertile of both the UAGT/Cr and 24-hour UNa groups was about 2.3 times higher than that in the reference group.

Groundwater Constituents and Trace Elements in the Basement Aquifers of Africa and Sedimentary Aquifers of Asia: Medical Hydrogeology of Drinking Water Minerals and Toxicants

The use of groundwater, a major source of potable water, in developing countries has proven to be an invaluable resource for local populations. The ability to safely use this water for drinking, however, depends on its chemical quality, a factor primarily controlled by various aquifer attributes such as geology and geochemistry. On a global scale, groundwater is primarily sourced from either sedimentary or basement aquifers. In this study, we compared the groundwater constituents and trace elements found in these two types of aquifer system in the context of medical hydrogeology, i.e. the status of groundwater mineral nutrients and pollutants, and their complex interaction in relation to human health. The evaluation work used a collated geochemical dataset developed for Bangladesh sedimentary aquifer data (n = 474), basement aquifer data from Northern Ghana (n = 184) and Central Tanzania (n = 73). An assessment of the mineral concentration in regards to dietary needs showed that the sedimentary aquifers found in Bangladesh have almost double the concentration of salubrious minerals such as calcium, magnesium and iron relative to the basement aquifers (Ghana and Tanzania). It should be noted, however, that the groundwater was also found to contain excessive levels of arsenic in the sedimentary aquifers and high levels of fluoride in those countries sourcing water from within basement rock; levels at which both elements pose a serious public health threat. Excessive sodium in drinking water is also an issue as this, combined with the normal dietary sodium level intake, may lead to hypertension and cardio-metabolic diseases. Unfortunately, health-based guideline values for drinking water containing sodium are non-existent or poorly defined, a fact which warrants further consideration at both a national and international level. The use of groundwater for drinking may assist in increasing the level of mineral nutrient uptake in the local population, however, it must also be augmented by a nutritious food supply in order to satisfy normal human dietary requirements.

The effect of different dietary levels of sodium and chloride on performance and blood parameters in goslings (1-28days of age).

A total of 702 1-day-old male Jiangnan White goslings were used to study the effects of varying levels of Na+ and Cl- on their growth performance and blood parameters. In this experiment, goslings were randomly allotted to nine treatments, with six pens per treatment in a 3×3 factorial arrangement, and fed diets with three concentrations of added Na+ (0.10%, 0.15% and 0.20%) and three concentrations of added Cl- (0.15%, 0.20% and 0.25%). The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the sensitivity of goslings to Na+ and Cl- during brooding to determine the appropriate levels of Na+ and Cl- in their feed. The results are as follows: (a) Different levels of Na+ and Cl- in the diet, especially low Na+ and Cl- , significantly affected the body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG) and feed/gain ratio (F/G) of the 28-day-old goslings (p<.05). But Na+ ×Cl- has no significant effect on water consumption (p>.05). (b) Serum concentrations of urea increased linearly with Na+ content (p<.05). Serum concentrations of creatinine (CR) and uric acid (UA) increased linearly with Cl- content (p<.05). (c) Na+ ×Cl- has a significant impact on the serum sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl; p<.05). The content of serum Na and Cl increased linearly with increasing levels of Na+ and Cl- . These results show that low levels of Na+ and Cl- had significant adverse effects on the growth of 1- to 28-day-old goslings. The results of the experiment support a recommendation to supplement the diet of goslings with 0.20% Cl- and not <0.15% Na+ .

Which source and level of dietary sodium is appropriate for broiler chickens reared in a high-altitude area?

This study investigated effect of increasing level of dietary sodium using sodium bicarbonate or sodium chloride on growth performance, mortality, characteristics of carcass, organs and tibia, calcium and phosphorus of serum in broilers reared in a high-altitude area (1,700m above sea level). A total of 588 Ross 308 male broiler chicks were used in seven treatments, six replicates per treatment of 14 birds per each from 1 to 38d of age. Seven dietary treatments consisted of a basal diet (with 0.16% sodium and 0.23% chloride), top-dressed for six diets to give three supplementary levels of sodium (0.07%, 0.14% and 0.21%) from sodium bicarbonate (respectively by 0.26%, 0.52% and 0.78%) or sodium chloride (respectively by 0.18%, 0.36% and 0.54%), resulting in seven diets with total sodium and chloride levels of 0.16% and 0.23%, 0.23% and 0.23%, 0.30% and 0.23%, 0.37% and 0.23%, 0.23% and 0.33%, 0.30% and 0.44%, 0.37% and 0.55% respectively. Increasing sodium level improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) linearly and quadratically. However, when FCR was calculated without adjusting for feed intake of mortalities, the enhanced sodium level did not improve this parameter. Increasing sodium level via sodium chloride enhanced ascites mortality, total mortality, relative weight of heart and right ventricle linearly. Increasing sodium level reduced serum calcium and enhanced serum phosphorus linearly; however, there was a linear tendency to increase tibia ash when sodium level was enhanced by sodium bicarbonate (p=0.08) or sodium chloride (p=0.07). Increasing sodium level via sodium bicarbonate tended (p=0.08) to reduce tibia strength linearly. In conclusion, a diet with 0.16% sodium and 0.23% chloride is enough for broiler chicken reared in a high-altitude area, and increasing dietary sodium level via sodium chloride has detrimental effect on survivability of broiler in such condition.