Levels Of Antimicrobial Resistance Research Articles

Molecular characterization of Escherichia coli virulence markers in neonatal and postweaning piglets from major pig-producing districts of Uganda.

Piggery production is highly constrained by diseases, with diarrhoea in piglets being a major cause of economic losses to smallholder farmers in Uganda. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is thought to be one of the major etiologies of this diarrhoea. A cross-sectional study was carried out in two high pig-producing districts of Uganda with the aim of determining the significance of piglet diarrhoea and the pathogenic determinants of causative E. coli. A total of 40 households with piglets were visited in each district for a questionnaire survey and faecal sample collection. The questionnaire-based data collected included; demographic data and pig management practices. E. coli were isolated from diarrheic (43) and non-diarrheic (172) piglets and were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing against nine commonly used antimicrobial agents. The E. coli isolates were further screened for the presence of 11 enterotoxin and fimbrial virulence gene markers using multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Data entry, cleaning, verification and descriptive statistics were performed using Microsoft Excel. Statistical analysis to determine any association between the presence of virulence markers and diarrhea in piglets was done using SPSS software (Version 23), with a p value of less than 0.05 taken as a statistically significant association. Escherichia coli were recovered from 81.4% (175/215) of the faecal samples. All the isolates were resistant to erythromycin, and most showed high resistance to tetracycline (71%), ampicillin (49%), and trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole (45%). More than half of the isolates (58.3%) carried at least one of the 11 virulence gene markers tested. EAST1 was the most prevalent virulence marker detected (35.4%), followed by STb (14.8%). Expression of more than one virulence gene marker was observed in 6.2% of the isolates, with the EAST1/STa combination being the most prevalent. Three adhesins; F17 (0.6%), F18 (6.3%) and AIDA-I (0.6%) were detected, with F18 being the most encountered. There was a statistically significant association between the occurrence of piglet diarrhoea and the presence of the AIDA-1 (p value = 0.037) or EAST1 (p value = 0.011) gene marker among the isolates. The level of antimicrobial resistance among E. coli isolates expressing virulence markers were high in the sampled districts. The study established a significant association between presence of EAST1 and AIDA-I virulence markers and piglet diarrhea. Further studies should be carried out to elucidate the main adhesins borne by these organisms in Uganda and the actual role played by EAST1 in the pathogenesis of the infection since most isolates expressed this gene.

A rapid and quantitative absorption-based measurement to study the impact of antibiotics on bacterial growth

Abstract Given the global rise in antimicrobial resistance levels, an urgent need exists to obtain the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of an antibiotic as early as possible. In this paper we present the first test results of a light-based concept where the interaction of a laser beam with the drug-bacterium sample is used for calculating MIC values within 6 hours after cultivation. For this preliminary study, a total of 163 drug-bacterium pairs were tested and benchmarked with broth microdilution (BMD). The pathogen set included Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus cohnii, Staphylococcus epidermis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Enterococcus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. The selected drugs belonged to 10 different classes. The method under investigation showed a categorical concordance of 86.1% and an essential agreement of 80.3% with BMD. Due to its simplicity, the concept can be easily implemented on existing commercial platforms. This research shows a promise for further studies potentially leading to a novel concept that can be employed to rapidly determine MIC values.

Investigating the feasibility and potential of combining industry AMR monitoring systems: a comparison with WHO GLASS

Background Efforts to estimate the global burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) have highlighted gaps in existing surveillance systems. Data gathered from hospital networks globally by pharmaceutical industries to monitor antibiotic efficacy in different bacteria represent an additional source to track the temporal evolution of AMR. Here, we analysed available industry monitoring systems to assess to which extent combining them could help fill the gaps in our current understanding of AMR levels and trends. Methods We analysed six industry monitoring systems (ATLAS, GEARS, SIDERO-WT, KEYSTONE, DREAM, and SOAR) obtained from the Vivli platform and reviewed their respective isolates collection and analysis protocols. Using the R software, we designed a pipeline to harmonise and combine these into a single dataset. We assessed the reliability of resistance estimates from these sources by comparing the combined dataset to the publicly available subset of WHO GLASS for shared bacteria-antibiotic-country-year combinations. Results Combined, the industry monitoring systems cover 18 years (4 years for GLASS), 85 countries (71), 412 bacterial species (8), and 75 antibiotics (25). Although all industry systems followed a similar centralised testing approach, the criteria for isolate collection were unclear (patients selection, associated sampling periods…). For E.coli, K. pneumoniae and S. aureus, at least 65% of comparable resistance proportions were within 0.1 of the corresponding estimate in GLASS. We did not identify systemic bias towards resistance in industry systems compared to GLASS. Conclusions Combining industry monitoring systems can substantially strengthen our knowledge of global AMR burden across bacterial species and countries. High agreement values for available comparisons with GLASS suggest that data for other bacteria-antibiotic-country-year combinations only present in industry systems could complement GLASS, particularly for Priority Pathogens currently not covered. This valuable information on resistance levels could help clinicians and stakeholders prioritize testing and select appropriate antibiotics in settings with limited surveillance data.

Antimicrobial resistance and ESBL production in uropathogenic Escherichia coli: a systematic review and meta-analysis in Ethiopia.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a serious threat to global health systems. Escherichia coli is a major cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs). Understanding the AMR patterns of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) is crucial for effective public health interventions worldwide. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to consolidate existing research and provide a comprehensive information on AMR UPEC in Ethiopia. We systematically searched databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Science Direct, along with including articles from Google Scholar. Data were extracted into Microsoft Excel and analysed using STATA 17.0. Cohen's kappa was computed to assess reviewer agreement, while the I2 statistic evaluated heterogeneity. Egger's tests were conducted to detect publication bias, and random-effects models were utilized to estimate the pooled resistance, with AMR rates for each antibiotic pooled separately. UPEC showed resistance rates, ranging from 3.64% (95% CI: -4.38% to 11.67%) for amikacin to 85.32% (95% CI: 78.6%-92.04%) for ampicillin. Highest resistance was to ampicillin (85.32%), followed by amoxicillin at 82.52% (95% CI: 74.3%-90.74%), tetracycline at 60.67% (95% CI: 51.53%-69.81%) and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole at 57.17% (95% CI: 49.93%-64.42%). Conversely, resistance rates were lower for amikacin at 3.64% and meropenem at 5.26% (95% CI: 2.64%-7.88%). UPEC demonstrated a pooled MDR rate of 79.17% (95% CI: 70.32%-88.01%) and a pooled ESBL production rate of 29.16% (95% CI: 22.36%-38.55%). High levels of AMR were observed in UPEC strains, highlighting a critical public health issue requiring urgent action through robust antimicrobial stewardship and surveillance to preserve effective UTI treatment options.

Prevalence of opportunistic pathogens and anti-microbial resistance in urban aquaculture ponds

Bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a significant concern worldwide. The microbial community profile and potential AMR level in aquaculture ponds are often undervalued and attract less attention than other aquatic environments. We used amplicon and metagenomic shotgun sequencing to study microbial communities and AMR in six freshwater polyculture ponds in rural and urban areas of Bangladesh. Amplicon sequencing revealed different community structures between rural and urban ponds, with urban ponds having a higher bacterial diversity and opportunistic pathogens including Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Corynebacterium. Despite proteobacterial dominance, Firmicutes was the most interactive in the community network, especially in the urban ponds. Metagenomes showed that drug resistance was the most common type of AMR found, while metal resistance was only observed in urban ponds. AMR and metal resistance genes were found mainly in beta and gamma-proteobacteria in urban ponds, while AMR was found primarily in alpha-proteobacteria in rural ponds. We identified potential pathogens with a high profile of AMR and metal resistance in urban aquaculture ponds. As these ponds provide a significant source of protein for humans, our results raise significant concerns for the environmental sustainability of this food source and the dissemination of AMR into the food chain. Environmental ImplicationsAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) and microbial metal resistance pose constant threats to environmental sustainability and human health. Aquaculture is one of the major protein sources for humans. This research investigates the microbial communities, AMR, and metal resistance in rural and urban ponds in Bangladesh. The goal is to understand how industrial pollution and anthropogenic activities impact the mobility of microbes, AMR, metal resistance, and toxin genes. The study aims to identify and evaluate the potential environmental and human health risks and the necessary steps to mitigate environmental threats and thereby promote the sustainable development of the blue economy.

Practice of standardization of CLSI M45 A3 antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Infrequently Isolated or Fastidious Bacteria strains isolated from blood specimens in Guangdong Province 2017-2021.

The concentration of antimicrobial agents in environments like water and food has increased rapidly, which led to a rapid increase in antimicrobial resistance levels in the environment. Monitoring of bacterial resistance levels is considered as a necessary means to control the bacterial resistance. Reference standards are critical for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. CLSI M45 A3 standard defines pathogenic microorganisms that cause infections less frequently than those covered by CLSI M02, M07, and M100 as Infrequently Isolated or Fastidious Bacteria and specifies antimicrobial susceptibility testing methods. Our study investigated the epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility testing data of Infrequently Isolated or Fastidious Bacteria strains isolated from blood specimens in 70 hospitals in Guangdong Province between 2017 and 2021. We defined testing methods other than those specified in CLSI M45 A3 as "Non-Standardized." The proportion of standardized antimicrobial susceptibility testing for penicillin increased significantly (Corynebacterium spp. 17.4% vs. 50.0% p < 0.05; Micrococcus spp. 50.0% vs. 77.8% p < 0.05; Abiotrophia spp. and Granulicatella spp. 21.4% vs. 90.9% p < 0.001), while for cefotaxime (Corynebacterium spp. 0.0% vs. 45.2% p < 0.05; Abiotrophia spp. and Granulicatella spp. 0.0% vs. 14.3% p = 0.515) and vancomycin increased finitely. Non-standardized methods were used for all other antimicrobials. Due to limitations in the economic and medical environment, some clinical laboratories are unable to fully comply with CLSI M45 A3 standard. We recommend that CLSI should add breakpoints for disk diffusion method to improve the standardization of antimicrobial susceptibility testing.

Detection of multidrug-resistant organisms of concern including Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Burkholderia cepacia at a referral hospital in Kenya.

Regular monitoring of bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics in clinical settings is key for ascertaining the current trends as well as re-establish empirical therapy. This study aimed to determine bacterial contaminants and their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns from medical equipment, inanimate surfaces and clinical samples obtained from Thika Level V Hospital (TLVH), Thika, in Central Kenya. Three hundred and five samples were collected between the period of March 2021 to November 2021 and comprised urine, pus swabs, catheter swabs, stool, and environmental samples. Bacterial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility were performed using VITEK 2 and disc diffusion respectively. We observed that Coagulase-negative Staphylococci (28 /160, 17.5%) were the most commonly isolated species from clinical samples followed by E. coli (22 /160 13.8%) and S. aureus (22/160, 13.8%). The bed rails were the mostly contaminated surface with S. aureus accounting for 14.2% (6/42). Among the clinical samples, pus swabs yielded the highest number of pathogens was pus (92/160). Trauma patients had the highest proportion of isolates (67/160, 41.8%). High level of antimicrobial resistance to key antimicrobials, particularly among Enterobacterales was observed. Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase (ESBL) phenotype was noted in 65.9% (29/44) of enteric isolates. While further ESBL genetic confirmatory studies are needed, this study highlights the urgent need for actions that mitigate the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Resistant Escherichia coli isolated from wild mammals from two rescue and rehabilitation centers in Costa Rica: characterization and public health relevance

This study aimed to characterize the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and virulence profiles of 67 Escherichia coli isolates obtained from faecal samples of 77 wild mammals from 19 different species, admitted in two rescue and rehabilitation centers in Costa Rica. It was possible to classify 48% (n = 32) of the isolates as multidrug-resistant, and while the highest resistance levels were found towards commonly prescribed antimicrobials, resistance to fluoroquinolones and third generation cephalosporins were also observed. Isolates obtained from samples of rehabilitated animals or animals treated with antibiotics were found to have significantly higher AMR levels, with the former also having a significant association with a multidrug-resistance profile. Additionally, the isolates displayed the capacity to produce α-haemolysins (n = 64, 96%), biofilms (n = 51, 76%) and protease (n = 21, 31%). Our results showed that AMR might be a widespread phenomenon within Costa Rican wildlife and that both free-ranging and rehabilitated wild mammals are potential carriers of bacteria with important resistance and virulence profiles. These results highlight the need to study potential sources of resistance determinants to wildlife, and to determine if wild animals can disseminate resistant bacteria in the environment, potentially posing a significant threat to public health and hindering the implementation of a “One Health” approach.

Understanding Vietnamese chicken farmers' knowledge and practices related to antimicrobial resistance using an item response theory approach.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a threat to animal and human health, as well as food security and nutrition. Development of AMR is accelerated by over- and misuse of antimicrobials as seen in many livestock systems, including poultry production. In Vietnam, high AMR levels have been reported previously within poultry production, a sector which is dominated by small-scale farming, even though it is intensifying. This study focuses on understanding small- and medium-scale chicken farmers' knowledge and practices related to AMR by applying an item response theory (IRT) approach, which has several advantages over simpler statistical methods. Farmers representing 305 farms in Thai Nguyen province were interviewed from November 2021 to January 2022, using a structured questionnaire. Results generated with IRT were used in regression models to find associations between farm characteristics, and knowledge and practice levels. Descriptive results showed that almost all farmers could buy veterinary drugs without prescription in the local community, that only one third of the farmers received veterinary professional advice or services, and that the majority of farmers gave antibiotics as a disease preventive measure. Regression analysis showed that multiple farm characteristics were significantly associated to farmers' knowledge and practice scores. The study highlights the complexity when tailoring interventions to move towards more medically rational antibiotic use at farms in a setting with high access to over-the-counter veterinary drugs and low access to veterinary services, since many on-farm factors relevant for the specific context need to be considered.

Multicentre double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial evaluating the efficacy of the meningococcal B vaccine, 4CMenB (Bexsero), against Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection in men who have sex with men: the GoGoVax study protocol

IntroductionGonorrhoea, the sexually transmissible infection caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, has a substantial impact on sexual and reproductive health globally with an estimated 82 million new infections each year worldwide. N....

A One Health Perspective on Salmonella enterica Serovar Infantis, an Emerging Human Multidrug-Resistant Pathogen.

Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis presents an ever-increasing threat to public health because of its spread throughout many countries and association with high levels of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). We analyzed whole-genome sequences of 5,284 Salmonella Infantis strains from 74 countries, isolated during 1989-2020 from a wide variety of human, animal, and food sources, to compare genetic phylogeny, AMR determinants, and plasmid presence. The global Salmonella Infantis population structure diverged into 3 clusters: a North American cluster, a European cluster, and a global cluster. The levels of AMR varied by Salmonella Infantis cluster and by isolation source; 73% of poultry isolates were multidrug resistant, compared with 35% of human isolates. This finding correlated with the presence of the pESI megaplasmid; 71% of poultry isolates contained pESI, compared with 32% of human isolates. This study provides key information for public health teams engaged in reducing the spread of this pathogen.

Fungal Photosensitizers – A new Scaffold of Tailor-made Photoantimicrobials?

SignificanceNew antimicrobials are needed to meet the challenges posed by increasing levels of antimicrobial resistance. While fungi are recognized as valuable source for antibiotics, their potential to produce photoantimicrobials has not been fully explored. ApproachFungal photosensitizers were isolated from the colorful fruiting bodies of dermocyboid Cortinarius species. Their photoantimicrobial potential was evaluated using a high-throughput assay based on a modified EUCAST protocol. Photocytotoxicity studies and near infrared emission spectra were conducted to characterize the photochemical properties of our compounds. ResultsPotent, novel photoantimicrobials against bacteria and yeasts were identified with activities in the low micromolar/nanomolar range. In addition, action solely against microbes was demonstrated for selected fungal photosensitizers. ConclusionsFungi are an underexplored source of promising photoantimicrobials with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity.

Epidemiology, Clinical, and Microbiological Characteristics of Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteremia in Qatar.

Antimicrobial resistance is a global healthcare threat with significant clinical and economic consequences peaking at secondary and tertiary care hospitals where multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (MDR GNB) lead to poor outcomes. A prospective study was conducted between January and December 2019 for all invasive bloodstream infections (BSIs) secondary to MDR GNB in Qatar identified during routine microbiological service to examine their clinical, microbiological, and genomic characteristics. Out of 3238 episodes of GNB BSIs, the prevalence of MDR GNB was 13% (429/3238). The predominant MDR pathogens were Escherichia coli (62.7%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (20.4%), Salmonella species (6.6%), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5.3%), while out of 245 clinically evaluated patients, the majority were adult males, with the elderly constituting almost one-third of the cohort and with highest observed risk for prolonged hospital stays. The risk factors identified included multiple comorbidities, recent healthcare contact, previous antimicrobial therapy, and admission to critical care. The in-hospital mortality rate was recorded at 25.7%, associated with multiple comorbidities, admission to critical care, and the acquisition of MDR Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Resistant pathogens demonstrated high levels of antimicrobial resistance but noticeable susceptibility to amikacin and carbapenems. Genomic analysis revealed that Escherichia coli ST131 and Salmonella enterica ST1 were the predominant clones not observed with other pathogens.

Molecular characterization of Escherichia coli isolates recovered from broilers with cellulitis

Avian cellulitis in broilers, caused by avian pathogenic Escherichia coli, is a major cause for carcass rejections during meat inspection, resulting in significant economic losses. In this study, we analysed E. coli isolates obtained from broiler chickens affected by cellulitis for their genetic relatedness and antimicrobial resistance phenotype and genotype. The objective was to determine whether there is a clonal spread or whether these clinical isolates differ. For this purpose, E. coli was isolated from swab samples collected from diseased broilers across 77 poultry farms in Germany, resulting in 107 isolates. These isolates were subjected to serotyping, PCR-based phylotyping and macrorestriction analysis with subsequent pulsed-field gel-electrophoresis for typing purposes. In addition, the presence of virulence genes associated with avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) was investigated by PCR. Antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates was examined by the disk diffusion method according to CLSI guidelines and subsequently, the presence of corresponding resistance genes was investigated by PCR. Typing results revealed that a significant proportion of the isolates belonged to serotype O78:K80, which is one of the major APEC serotypes. Phylogenetic grouping showed that phylogenetic group D was most commonly represented (n = 49). Macrorestriction analysis showed overall heterogenous results, however, some clustering of closely related isolates was observed. The level of antimicrobial resistance was high, with 83.8% of isolates non-susceptible to at least one class of antimicrobial agents and 40% of isolates showing resistance to at least three classes. The most frequently observed resistance was to ampicillin, mediated by blaTEM (n = 56). However, few isolates were non-susceptible to ciprofloxacin (n = 8) and none of the isolates was resistant to 3rd generation cephalosporins or carbapenems. Overall, the results show that genetically diverse APEC associated with avian cellulitis can be found among and within German poultry farms. While most isolates were antimicrobial resistant, resistance levels to high(est) priority critically important antimicrobials were low.

Lactococcus garvieae-associated septicemia in a central bearded dragon.

Lactococcus garvieae is the causative agent of lactococcosis in fish and an emerging zoonotic pathogen with high levels of antimicrobial resistance. We report a case of L. garvieae-associated septicemia in a central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) confirmed via whole-blood PCR and direct sequencing. Following a 30-d course of ceftazidime (20 mg/kg IM q72h), the animal's clinical condition had not resolved; leukopenia persisted, with heterophil toxic change. Coelomic ultrasound findings were consistent with preovulatory follicular stasis, folliculitis, and coelomitis. Following surgical ovariectomy and an additional 30-d course of ceftazidime, the animal's behavior and appetite returned to normal, the animal tested negative via whole-blood PCR assay, and the CBC was unremarkable. To our knowledge, L. garvieae with L. garvieae-associated clinical disease has not been reported previously in a bearded dragon. We conclude that L. garvieae should be considered as a possible etiologic agent in cases of septicemia in bearded dragons, with the potential for zoonotic transmission warranting further investigation.

Antimicrobial stewardship and molecular diagnostics: a symbiotic approach to combating resistance in the ED and ICU.

This review aims to evaluate the incorporation of rapid molecular diagnostics (RMD) in antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASPs) in the management of patients in the emergency department (ED) and intensive care unit (ICU), highlighting a shift from conventional microbiological diagnostic tests to RMD strategies to optimize antimicrobial use and improve patient outcomes. Recent advances in RMD have demonstrated the superior accuracy of RMD in identifying pathogens, combined with shorter turnaround times. RMD allows speeding up of antimicrobial decision making in the ED and facilitates faster escalation when empirical therapy was inappropriate, as well as more efficient de-escalation of empirical therapy later in the course of the treatment. Implementation of RMD however may be challenging. RMD hold great value in simplifying patient management and mitigating antimicrobial exposure, particularly in settings with high levels of antimicrobial resistance where the use of broad-spectrum antimicrobials is high. While the impact on the use of antimicrobials is significant, the impact on patient outcomes is not yet clear. Successful integration of RMD in clinical decision making in the ED and ICU requires a team approach and continued education, and its use should be adapted to the local epidemiology and infrastructure.

PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF ANTIBIOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERNS OF PATHOGENS ISOLATED FROM PRIVATE LABORATORY SPECIMENS IN UKRAINE

Objective. This study aims at conducting an analysis of data on antibiotic resistance to antimicrobials that were obtained for the period from April 28, 2018, to December 31, 2019, in a private laboratory in the city of Kharkiv. Materials and methods. We conducted an investigation into the identification and analysis of antimicrobial sensitivity for isolates obtained from patients at a private clinic in the city of Kharkiv from 2018 to 2019. Results. The analysis revealed that patients most frequently sought bacteriological examination for materials from the throat (34.5%) and nose (29.9%), while the least common requests were for examination of the mucous membrane of the oral cavity (2.3%) and skin (3.4%). The positive results accounted for 94.3% of the cases. The isolated strains included Staphylococcus aureus (29.4%), Neisseria spp. (16.5%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (14.1%), Streptococcus spp. of the Viridans group (12.9%), Candida albicans (5.9%), Moraxella spp. (1.2%), Streptococcus anhaemolyticus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (each constituting 3.5%), molds (2.4%), and Streptococcus haemolyticus, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Enterococcus faecalis (each accounting for 1.2%). The isolated strains obtained from patients of the private laboratory had a pronounced antibiotic resistance to antimicrobial drugs of the following groups: beta-lactams, tetracycline, aminoglycosides, and sulfonamides. This should be taken into account by doctors when prescribing antibacterial therapy. Conclusions. The data indicate disturbingly high levels of antimicrobial resistance in isolates collected from patients at a private clinic in the city of Kharkiv.

The European livestock resistome.

Metagenomic sequencing has proven to be a powerful tool in the monitoring of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Here, we provide a comparative analysis of the resistome from pigs, poultry, veal calves, turkey, and rainbow trout, for a total of 538 herds across nine European countries. We calculated the effects of per-farm management practices and antimicrobial usage (AMU) on the resistome in pigs, broilers, and veal calves. We also provide an in-depth study of the associations between bacterial diversity, resistome diversity, and AMR abundances as well as co-occurrence analysis of bacterial taxa and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) and the universality of the latter. The resistomes of veal calves and pigs clustered together, as did those of avian origin, while the rainbow trout resistome was different. Moreover, we identified clear core resistomes for each specific food-producing animal species. We identified positive associations between bacterial alpha diversity and both resistome alpha diversity and abundance. Network analyses revealed very few taxa-ARG associations in pigs but a large number for the avian species. Using updated reference databases and optimized bioinformatics, previously reported significant associations between AMU, biosecurity, and AMR in pig and poultry farms were validated. AMU is an important driver for AMR; however, our integrated analyses suggest that factors contributing to increased bacterial diversity might also be associated with higher AMR load. We also found that dispersal limitations of ARGs are shaping livestock resistomes, and future efforts to fight AMR should continue to emphasize biosecurity measures.IMPORTANCEUnderstanding the occurrence, diversity, and drivers for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is important to focus future control efforts. So far, almost all attempts to limit AMR in livestock have addressed antimicrobial consumption. We here performed an integrated analysis of the resistomes of five important farmed animal populations across Europe finding that the resistome and AMR levels are also shaped by factors related to bacterial diversity, as well as dispersal limitations. Thus, future studies and interventions aimed at reducing AMR should not only address antimicrobial usage but also consider other epidemiological and ecological factors.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Potential of Bacterial Species from Captive Birds of Prey-Consequences of Falconry for Public Health.

Falconry has been practiced for thousands of years and is nowadays frequently employed in activities such as pest control, hunting, falcon racing, and environmental education. Antimicrobial resistance levels have risen in the past years, constituting an emerging global problem with a direct impact on public health. Besides both topics being studied on their own, information on the role of captive birds of prey in the potential dissemination of virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance determinants of bacterial origin is scarce. Multidrug-resistant bacteria, including some extended-spectrum β-lactamase producers, have already been found in several captive birds of prey. Most of the virulence factors found in captive raptors' bacteria were related to adherence and invasion abilities, toxin production, and flagella. These birds may acquire these bacteria through contaminated raw food and the exchange of animals between keepers and zoological facilities. More studies are required to confirm the role of captive birds of prey in disseminating resistant bacteria and on the routes of interaction between synanthropic species and humans.

Mycoplasma bovis mastitis in dairy cattle.

Mycoplasma bovis has recently been identified increasingly in dairy cows causing huge economic losses to the dairy industry. M. bovis is a causative agent for mastitis, pneumonia, endometritis, endocarditis, arthritis, otitis media, and many other clinical symptoms in cattle. However, some infected cows are asymptomatic or may not shed the pathogen for weeks to years. This characteristic of M. bovis, along with the lack of adequate testing and identification methods in many parts of the world until recently, has allowed the M. bovis to be largely undetected despite its increased prevalence in dairy farms. Due to growing levels of antimicrobial resistance among wild-type M. bovis isolates and lack of cell walls in mycoplasmas that enable them to be intrinsically resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics that are widely used in dairy farms, there is no effective treatment for M. bovis mastitis. Similarly, there is no commercially available effective vaccine for M. bovis mastitis. The major constraint to developing effective intervention tools is limited knowledge of the virulence factors and mechanisms of the pathogenesis of M. bovis mastitis. There is lack of quick and reliable diagnostic methods with high specificity and sensitivity for M. bovis. This review is a summary of the current state of knowledge of the virulence factors, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and control of M. bovis mastitis in dairy cows.