Levels Of Saturated Fatty Acids Research Articles

Influence of Silicate Concentrations on Growth, Carotenoid, and Fatty Acid Profiles of the Marine Diatom Conticribra weissflogii

Enhancing microalgal growth and bioactive compound production is becoming a duty for improving photosynthetic microorganisms. In this study, the growth, carotenoid, and fatty acid profiles of Conticribra weissflogii were studied under four different silicate concentrations and silicate-deficient conditions in an f/2 medium with continuous aeration, light intensity (30 ± 2 µmol m−2 s−1), salinity (25 ± 2‰), pH (8), and temperature (25 ± 2 °C). At the end of the experiment, we observed that a silicate concentration of 120 mg L−1 produced the maximum biomass dry weight (0.86 g L−1), carotenoid content (1.63 µg mL−1), and fucoxanthin content (1.23 mg g−1) in C. weissflogii. The eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (11,354.37 µg g−1), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (2516.16 µg g−1), gamma-linolenic acid (C18:3n6) (533.51 µg g−1), and arachidonic acid (C20:4n6) (1261.83 µg g−1) contents were significantly higher at Si 120 mg L−1. The results further showed the maximum fatty acid content in C. weissflogii at Si 120 mg L−1. However, the silicate-deficient conditions (Si 0 mg L−1) resulted in higher levels of saturated fatty acids (38,038.62 µg g−1). This study presents a practical approach for the large-scale optimization of biomass, carotenoid, fucoxanthin, and fatty acid production in C. weissflogii for commercial purposes.

Antioxidant and Nutritional Potential of Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) By-Product Extracts in Fat-Replaced Beef Burgers with Hydrogel Emulsions from Olive Oil

Beef burger consumption has been questioned due to the burgers’ high levels of saturated fatty acids and the use of synthetic additives for preservation. In order to improve the acceptability and health benefits of this product, two functional ingredients, artichoke and extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO), have been used to formulate four different beef burgers: a control burger (CB), a fat-replaced burger with an EVOO emulsion (FRB), and two FRB formulations with the incorporation of enzymatically treated (FRB-TAE) or untreated (FRB-AE) artichoke extract. Fat replacement significantly affected the lipid profile of the burgers, increasing oleic acid levels and n-3 PUFA such as α-linolenic and eicosapentaenoic acids. Artichoke incorporation exerted beneficial effects on the antioxidant activity, as well as on the total phenolic content of the reformulated burgers, leading to a decrease in color changes, lipid and protein oxidation after 3 days of storage at 4 °C, as well as reducing the formation of volatile compounds such as hexanal, 2,3-Octanedione, or 1-Octen-3-ol. No differences were found between formulations for the sensory parameters studied. These results demonstrate a possible revalorization of artichoke by-products by improving the nutritional properties of beef burgers, revealing a potential application as a higher value-added ingredient in the meat industry.

Use of Lupinus albus as a Local Protein Source in the Production of High-Quality Iberian Pig Products

The replacement of soybean meal with sweet white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) seeds was investigated in the diets of Iberian pigs during the growing and fattening phases, evaluating its effects on growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality. Iberian pigs (n = 50) were divided into two dietary groups (n = 25 per group), receiving either a lupin-based concentrate or a soybean meal-based concentrate. The data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), with a significance level of p < 0.05. The results showed that lupin substitution had no adverse effect on body weight, average daily gain, or carcass characteristics. No significant differences were observed in meat quality parameters such as pH, colour, and texture. However, significantly (p = 0.007) lower levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) content were found in the intramuscular fat of pre-finishing (primor) pigs fed lupin-based diets. In addition, these pigs had lower plasma triglyceride levels at the end of the growing phase. Overall, the results suggest that sweet white lupin is a viable alternative protein source in Iberian pig production, offering potential health benefits in line with consumer preferences for sustainably produced, healthier meat products, without compromising production efficiency or product quality.

The Interplay between Oxidative Stress and Fatty Acids Profile in Romanian Spotted Cows with Placental Retention

(1) Background: Retained fetal membranes (RFM) in cattle negatively impact reproduction, calving intervals, and health. This study examined OS markers and fatty acid profiles in Romanian Spotted cattle, comparing cows with normal parturition to those with RFM. Over 9 weeks, serum samples were collected from 22 cows (7 with RFM, 15 normal) at intervals before and after parturition. Placental tissues were also analyzed. The aim was to identify OS biomarkers that predict RFMs, track changes over time, and assess their impact on the placental fatty acid profile. (2) Methods: Samples were analyzed for superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). Placental fatty acids were profiled using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. (3) Results: SOD and CAT activities increased in cows with retained fetal membranes (RFM) before parturition (SOD: p < 0.001, RFM 404.601 ± 20.941 vs. NP 339.101 ± 44.911; CAT: p < 0.01, RFM 121.132 ± 14.831 vs. NP 96.070 ± 2.397), indicating OS. However, significant decreases during labor suggested weakened antioxidant defenses. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) peaked during parturition in RFM cows (p < 0.0001, 38.780 ± 3.727 vs. 11.150 ± 1.555), signaling heightened stress. Additionally, MDA levels increased before parturition (p < 0.001, RFM 8.424 ± 1.894 vs. NP 3.807 ± 0.484), confirming lipid peroxidation. RFM cows also exhibited higher levels of saturated fatty acids and lower monounsaturated fatty acids, pointing to metabolic stress. (4) Conclusions: This study highlights the role of OS and fatty acid imbalances in RFMs, suggesting potential strategies to improve reproductive outcomes by managing OS.

Association of serum fatty acids with bone health in rural elderly population in Qingdao, China: A cross-sectional study.

As a type of macronutrient, fatty acids (FA) play significant roles in the bone health of elderly people. However, the specific association between different types of FA and bone health is not fully understood, especially in rural elderly populations. To address this gap, a study was conducted in rural areas of Qingdao, China. Participants aged 65 and older were randomly recruited from 11 rural villages in Licha town, Qingdao City. The levels of serum FA in their serum were measured to investigate the associations between FA and bone mass. The results showed that levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA), n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFA) were all significantly associated with bone mass. Specifically, higher levels of SFA were positively correlated with low bone mass (LBM), while PUFA levels were inversely correlated with LBM. Furthermore, the odds ratio (OR) for LBM exhibited a significant nonlinear dose-response relationship (pnonlinearity = 0.1989) with SFA levels, and a significant nonlinear dose-dependent relationship was also observed with the levels of n-3PUFA and n-6PUFA (pnonlinearity = 0.6183, 0.5808, respectively), indicating that increasing dietary PUFA intake appropriately and controlling SFA intake may benefit the bone health of elderly individuals in rural areas.

Transesterification of waste cooking oil for biodiesel production using alkaline-modified graphitic carbon nitride heterogeneous catalyst

ABSTRACT Developing efficient, stable, cost-effective, and environmentally benign heterogeneous catalysts for transesterification is highly required for sustainable biodiesel production. The present study explores the biodiesel production from waste cooking oil (WCO) using graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) and its alkaline-modified nanocatalyst. The catalysts were characterised by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). From the XRD analysis, crystalline sizes of g-C3N4 and alkaline g-C3N4 were found to be 26 and 29 nm, respectively. Transesterification of WCO was carried out at 60 °C for a reaction time of 2 h using 2 wt.% of g-C3N4 and alkaline g-C3N4. Transesterification reaction catalysed by alkaline-modified g-C3N4 was found with a higher yield of biodiesel (89%) than the biodiesel yield (78%) with transesterification reaction catalysed by g-C3N4. The recyclability of both catalysts was also evaluated by reusing them for up to the 5th cycle. The obtained biodiesel was analyzed by using FTIR and GC-MS. The synthesised biodiesel was found to have significant level of monounsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids, which make it usefuel for use as fuel. Some physicochemical properties of the obtained biodiesel were also calculated and found appropriate as per the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. With high reusability and good catalytic activity, the synthesised alkaline-modified g-C3N4 can be employed as a viable option for biodiesel production from WCO.

The association between circulating saturated fatty acids and thyroid function: results from the NHANES 2011-2012.

Excessive saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are known to be detrimental to human health. Although the majority of research and dietary guidelines have focused on the intake of SFAs, there has been limited attention to the relationship between circulating SFA levels and hormonal regulation, such as that of thyroid hormones. To explore potential associations, we conducted an investigation with 579 participants from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2012. Subgroup analyses and multivariable linear regression models were used to estimate the relationships between eleven distinct SFA concentrations and various thyroid parameters. For 579 adults, subgroup analysis of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) revealed significant differences in nine specific SFAs and the total SFA levels (all p < 0.05). Furthermore, multivariable linear regression analysis identified positive correlations between certain SFAs and various parameters, including TSH, total triiodothyronine (TT3), free triiodothyronine (FT3), thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPOAb), thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb), thyroglobulin (Tg), the ratio of FT3 to free thyroxine (FT4) (FT3/FT4), and the thyrotroph T4 resistance index (TT4RI). Conversely, negative correlations were observed between certain SFAs and total thyroxine (TT4), FT4, the ratio of FT3/TT3, and the thyroid feedback quantile-based index (TFQI) (all p < 0.05). These findings collectively suggest associations between SFAs and thyroid parameters, highlighting the need for future studies to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of these interactions.

Comparison of Growth and Composition of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens L.) Larvae Reared on Sugarcane By-Products and Other Substrates.

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) can convert organic waste into high-quality biomass. In this study, we tested the potential of sugarcane by-products as a food source for BSFL and compared larval development and nutritional value with some other organic substrates. Seven different substrates were used, including carrot pomace (C), carrot pomace and leftover bread (CB) (50/50), bagasse and vinasse (BV), bagasse and molasses (BM), bagasse, vinasse, and molasses (BVM), a mixture of all the above treatments (MX), and university canteen leftovers (UCLs). The larval weight and length were measured for two weeks from day 5 to 19. Then, the BSFL were harvested and analyzed for dry matter, crude protein, oil, ash, mineral, and fatty acid composition. Larval weight and length varied depending on the feeding substrate provided. University canteen leftovers resulted in the BSFL having at least 18% greater length (17.00 mm) and 56% greater weight (3.15 g) compared to other treatments. The highest amounts of protein (38.9%) and oil (39.06%) were observed in the UCL treatment, while the BV treatment larvae had the highest quantities of ash (28.9%) and dry matter (28.0%). The fatty acid profile of the BSFL revealed three-times-higher levels of saturated fatty acids than unsaturated fatty acids in the UCL treatment and was at least twice as high in other treatments. Overall, the BSFL had the best growth on the UCL substrate, and the combination of bagasse and vinasse (BV) was the most appropriate substrate for BSFL development among the sugarcane by-products.

Sphingomyelin-enriched milk phospholipids offer superior benefits in improving the physicochemical properties, microstructure, and surface characteristics of infant formula

Phospholipids from different sources have varying chemical compositions, but how they contribute to different properties of infant formula is unclear. In this study, four types of phospholipids, milk phospholipids (MPLs), soybean phospholipids (SBPLs), sunflower phospholipids (SFPLs), and egg yolk phospholipids (EYPLs), were added to infant formula to investigate their physicochemical properties, microstructure, and surface characteristics. MPLs uniquely offer high sphingomyelin and saturated fatty acid levels. The MPL-based emulsion had the smallest particle size (334.50 nm), lowest stability constant (0.30), and highest viscosity among all groups tested. Furthermore, the abundance of sphingomyelin in MPLs allowed for a denser interfacial film and the complete phospholipid-coated structure of lipid droplets in infant formula emulsion. This consequently improved the microstructure and fat encapsulation of the powder, leading to significantly lower surface fat content in the MPL group. Therefore, the proper selection of phospholipids is crucial for modulating the stability and surface characteristics of infant formula.

The evaluation of medium-chain and long-chain saturated fatty acid levels in the milk of various species and their potential in cancer prevention

The evaluation of medium-chain and long-chain saturated fatty acid levels in the milk of various species and their potential in cancer prevention

Cancer-associated foam cells hamper protective T cell immunity and favor tumor progression in human colon carcinogenesis

BackgroundColorectal cancer (CRC) remains a significant healthcare burden worldwide, characterized by a complex interplay between obesity and chronic inflammation. While the relationship between CRC, obesity and altered lipid metabolism is...

Lipidomics Analysis of Human HMC3 Microglial Cells in an In Vitro Model of Metabolic Syndrome.

Metabolic endotoxemia (ME) is associated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS, endotoxin) and increased levels of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in the bloodstream, causing systemic inflammation. ME usually accompanies obesity and a diet rich in fats, especially SFAs. Numerous studies confirm the effect of ME-related endotoxin on microglial activation. Our study aimed to assess lipid metabolism and immune response in microglia pre-stimulated with TNFα (Tumor Necrosis Factor α) and then with endotoxin and palmitic acid (PA). Using ELISA, we determined cytokines IL-1β, IL-10, IL-13 (interleukin-1β, -10, -13, and TGFβ (Transforming Growth Factor β) in the culture medium from microglial cells stimulated for 24 h with TNFα and then treated with LPS (10 ng/mL) and PA (200 µM) for 24 h. HMC3 (Human Microglial Cells clone 3) cells produced negligible amounts of IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-13 after stimulation but secreted moderate levels of TGFβ. Changes in lipid metabolism accompanied changes in TREM2 (Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2) expression. HMC3 stimulation with endotoxin increased TREM2 expression, while PA treatment decreased it. Endotoxin increased ceramide levels, while PA increased triglyceride levels. These results indicated that pre-stimulation of microglia with TNFα significantly affects its interactions with LPS and PA and modulates lipid metabolism, which may lead to microglial activation silencing and neurodegeneration.

Metabolic Reprogramming of Phospholipid Fatty Acids as a Signature of Lung Cancer Type.

Background: Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC) differ in aggressiveness, proliferation speed, metastasis propensity, and prognosis. Since tumor cells notably change lipid metabolism, especially phospholipids and fatty acids (FA), this study aimed to identify FA alterations in lung cancer tissues. Methods: Our study included patients with newly diagnosed, histologically confirmed SCLC (n = 27) and NSCLC (n = 37). Samples were collected from both malignant and healthy tissues from each patient, providing they were within subject design. Results: In both NSCLC and SCLC tumor tissues, FA contents were shifted toward pro-inflammatory profiles, with increased levels of some individual n-6 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA), particularly arachidonic acid, and elevated activity of Δ6 desaturase. Compared to healthy counterparts, lower levels of alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) and total saturated FA (SFA) were found in NSCLC, while decreased levels of linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and all individual n-3 FA were found in SCLC tissue in comparison to the healthy tissue control. When mutually compared, SCLC tissue had higher levels of total SFA, especially stearic acid, while higher levels of linoleic acid, total PUFA, and n-3 and n-6 PUFA were detected in NSCLC. Estimated activities of Δ6 desaturase and elongase were higher in SCLC than in NSCLC. Conclusions: Our findings indicate a notable impairment of lipid metabolism in two types of lung cancer tissues. These type-specific alterations may be associated with differences in their progression and also point out different therapeutic targets.

Metabolic changes associated with PFAS exposure in firefighters: A pilot study

This pilot study investigated the association between occupational exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and metabolic profiles among two groups of aviation firefighters (n = 37), with an average of 6 and 31 years of working experience (here referred as junior and senior firefighters) at airports across Australia, with samples collected in 2013. PFAS levels in serum were determined in a previous study to be >17 times higher in the senior firefighter group, reflecting the difference in their occupational exposure to fluorosurfactants among the groups. The aim was to examine metabolic patterns across a broad range of PFAS exposure by comparing metabolic differences and their associations with PFAS levels. In this cross-sectional study, the length of firefighting experience and PFAS levels in serum were both further associated with changes in several classes of metabolites, including free fatty acids, bile acids, amino acids, lipids and metabolites related to gut microbial metabolism. The metabolites associated with the length of firefighting experience showed similarities with the metabolites associated with PFAS levels. A non-monotonic response to PFAS concentrations, particularly in saturated fatty acids, was also observed. In the junior firefighter group, the PFAS concentrations were positively associated with saturated fatty acids, i.e., the saturated fatty acid levels increased with increased PFAS levels. In the senior firefighter group, the trend was opposite, with saturated fatty acids decreasing with increasing levels of PFAS. Accounting for potential confounding factors such as BMI and age could not explain the results. While the study population was small, our results plausibly indicate that PFAS exposure can lead to a metabolic compensation strategy that is disrupted at high, long-term exposures. Our study also suggests that serum metabolites serve as better effect-based markers of the impact of exposure than the traditional clinical measurements alone, such as total triglycerides or total cholesterol.

Effect of Stocking Density on Growth, Biochemical Composition, and Blood Parameters in the Pacific Shortfin Eel (Anguilla bicolor pacifica) Elvers

This study examined the effect of stocking density on growth, biochemical composition, and blood parameters of the Pacific shortfin eel Anguilla bicolor pacifica. Elvers (1.95 ± 0.14 g body weight) were randomly stocked in indoor tanks and reared over 186 d at three stocking densities (0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 kg m-3) set up in triplicates. Except for survival and biometric indices, elvers maintained at 0.3 and 0.6 kg m-3 densities exhibited higher growth and feed utilization than those held at 0.9 kg m-3. Yield increased with stocking density, which were significantly higher at 0.6 and 0.9 kg m-3. RNA/DNA ratio did not reflect growth rate, but trends in survival and RNA/DNA ratio with stocking density were positively related. In contrast to body proximate composition, increasing stocking density resulted in significantly higher erucic acid (22:1n-9) and total saturated fatty acid levels at 0.6 and 0.9 kg m-3 densities, respectively. Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase activity was significantly elevated at 0.6 kg m-3, while total protein, glucose, and triglycerides slightly decreased with increasing stocking density. Results suggest that Pacific shortfin eel elvers can be reared in indoor tanks at a stocking density of 0.3 – 0.6 kg m-3 to achieve acceptable growth, feed performance, and health condition.

Postmortem Fatty Acid Abnormalities in the Cerebellum of Patients with Essential Tremor.

Fatty acids play many critical roles in brain function but have not been investigated in essential tremor (ET), a frequent movement disorder suspected to involve cerebellar dysfunction. Here, we report a postmortem comparative analysis of fatty acid profiles by gas chromatography in the cerebellar cortex from ET patients (n = 15), Parkinson's disease (PD) patients (n = 15) and Controls (n = 17). Phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylinositol (PI)/ phosphatidylserine (PS) were separated by thin-layer chromatography and analyzed separately. First, the total amounts of fatty acids retrieved from the cerebellar cortex were lower in ET patients compared with PD patients, including monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). The diagnosis of ET was associated with lower cerebellar levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and PUFA (DHA and ARA) in the PE fraction specifically, but with a higher relative content of dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA; 20:3 ω-6) in the PC fraction. In contrast, a diagnosis of PD was associated with higher absolute concentrations of SFA, MUFA and ω-6 PUFA in the PI + PS fractions. However, relative PI + PS contents of ω-6 PUFA were lower in both PD and ET patients. Finally, linear regression analyses showed that the ω-3:ω-6 PUFA ratio was positively associated with age of death, but inversely associated with insoluble α-synuclein. Although it remains unclear how these FA changes in the cerebellum are implicated in ET or PD pathophysiology, they may be related to an ongoing neurodegenerative process or to dietary intake differences. The present findings provide a window of opportunity for lipid-based therapeutic nutritional intervention.

The Effect of Mulberry Silage Supplementation on the Carcass Fatness and Long-Chain Fatty Acid Composition of Growing Lambs Compared with Traditional Corn Silage.

Lamb meat has become very popular with consumers in recent years due to its nutritional benefits. As a lean red meat, lamb is an important natural source of polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids, which can be modified by adjustments in livestock feed. This study used proteomic and metabolic analyses to compare a basal ration supplemented with either mulberry silage or corn silage. Supplementation with mulberry silage led to a reduction in subcutaneous carcass fatness compared with corn silage. Additionally, changes in the proteome associated with fatty acid metabolism and oxidation resulted in decreased levels of saturated and trans fatty acids, while significantly increasing the levels of α-linolenic acid (ALA) and oleic acid and reducing linoleic acid content.

Change in Sunflower Oil Quality and Safety Depending on Number of Deodorisation Cycles Used.

Deodorisation remains a beneficial aspect of the processing of edible oils and fats and is required during the first refining and after transportation, storage, and/or further processing, such as interesterification. While there is awareness among the scientific community that repeated deodorisation may negatively impact product quality, according to some technical and processing requirements, oils, fats, and their blends can still be treated with up to 3-4 cycles of deodorisation. However, the precise changes caused by sequential deodorising processes remain unknown. This study analysed fatty acid compositions, peroxide values, anisidine values, volatile profiles, and monochloropropanediol (MCPDEs) and glycidyl (GEs) fatty acid ester contents in pressed and repeatedly deodorised sunflower oils (SFOs). The latter had higher levels of saturated fatty acids (SFAs); monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs); and trans fatty acids (TFAs); as well as volatile aldehydes, such as pentanal, hexanal, (E)-2-hexenal, and (E)-2-heptenal, and MCPDE contents with each successive deodorisation. Most of these compounds have the potential to cause harmful health effects. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the number of edible oil deodorisation cycles in order to maintain their quality and safety.

Utilizing foam-structured hydroxypropyl methylcellulose oleogels with curcumin for deep-fried chicken nuggets in carnauba wax-canola oil oleogel

In this study, foam-structured hydroxypropyl methylcellulose was used to structure cod liver oil into oleogel. Different concentrations of curcumin (0, 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, and 4.4 mg/100g of chicken nuggets) were added to the oleogels and incorporated into the chicken nuggets. Subsequently, samples were deep-fried in an oleogel frying medium prepared with carnauba wax and canola oil (10g/100g). Our results revealed that the addition of 4.4 mg/100g of curcumin led to the highest fat uptake reduction and moisture retention compared to the control and 1.1 mg/100g of curcumin (P < 0.05). Additionally, the addition of 4.4 mg/100g of curcumin exhibited consistently higher oxidative stability, as indicated by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), during the 30-day storage period at −18 °C compared to the control (P < 0.05). Notably, treated samples did not show any alteration in ash and protein contents, color, texture, pH values, sensory attributes, or microscopic structures of the fried chicken products. Furthermore, fatty acid analysis revealed that the samples containing 4.4 mg/100g of curcumin had significantly lower levels of saturated fatty acids and higher levels of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids than the control (P < 0.05). Overall, the study demonstrates that adding curcumin in a carrier setting to deep-fried chicken products can improve the products by reducing fat uptake and extending oxidative stability.

Comparative characterisation of fatty acids and triacylglycerols from Egyptian and Chinese commercial infant formula

Infant formula (IF) is the second most significant global food after human milk. A comparative analysis of the composition and distribution of fatty acids (FAs) and triacylglycerols (TAGs) in human milk and IFs from Egypt was conducted with those from their Chinese counterparts. Eight brands of IF available in the Egyptian market exhibited significant differences in FA and TAG profiles compared to human milk. Specifically, all IFs had lower levels of saturated fatty acids (SAF) and higher levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) than human milk. Additionally, ultraperformance supercritical fluid chromatography and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPSFC-Q-TOF-MS) analysis revealed the presence of more than 144 and 142 TAGs in human milk and IFs, respectively. The most prevalent TAG composition in human milk and IF were O/P/O and O/O/O, respectively. Based on individual similarity index (ISI) calculations, Chinese IFs outperformed Egyptian IFs in all TAGs containing palmitic acid.